Passive with control and raising in mainland Scandinavian

Abstract This article gives an overview of the use of non-local passives in mainland Scandinavian, i.e. passives where the subject of the first verb is a thematic argument of a second verb. Three factors are important: whether V1 is a control verb or a raising passive, whether V2 is a passive participle or an infinitive and whether the passive is morphological or periphrastic. Danish and Norwegian allow passive control verbs such as forsøge ‘try’ with passive participles whereas this pattern is only found with semi-control verbs like begära ‘request’ in Swedish. In Swedish there is an alternative strategy for strict control verbs, viz. active control verb plus passive infinitive. All three languages allow both passive infinitival complements and passive participles with raising passives such as påstås ‘is claimed’. These passive constructions need to be distinguished from so called long passives and double passives where a passive feature on either V1 or V2 can spread to the adjacent verb.


Introduction
Passive normally involves the reordering of the arguments of a single predicate but in some languages there are non-local passive constructions which involve more than one predicate.By a non-local passive I understand constructions where the subject of a passive verb, V1, is an argument of another verb, V2, in an embedded VP, as shown in (1).
(1) SUBJ V1 PASS VP V2 Different kinds of non-local passives have been studied in various languages.In Danish and Norwegian, there is a construction, known in the literature as complex passive, where V2 is a passive participle (see e.g.Engh, 1984;Hellan, 1984;Christensen, 1986;Ørsnes, 2006).This construction, was previously thought not to be found in Swedish but a closer look reveals that Swedish instead uses a construction where V2 is a passive infinitive.In all three languages we find a productive construction where V1 is a verb of communication.Ørsnes (2013) refers to this as reportive passive; I will use the term raising passive.German, Italian and French use a construction known as long passive where V2 is an infinitive, either active or passive.(see Wurmbrand, 2001;Cinque, 2006;Hobaek Haff & Lødrup, 2016).Lødrup (2014) argues that long passive is also found in Norwegian.The primary aim of this article is to investigate how these non-local passive constructions are used in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish in the light of recent studies by Julien & Lødrup (2013) and Lødrup (2014).
Three factors turn out to be important: whether V1 is a control verb or a raising passive, whether V2 is a passive participle or an infinitive and whether the passive V1 and/or V2 is morphological, formed by adding -s to the verb, or a periphrastic construction with copula and pariciple. 1Although a number of analyses of nonlocal passives have appeared, the interaction between these factors has not been sufficiently studied.In this article data from previous articles are complemented with searches in morphologically annotated corpora.The searches give some indications of relative frequency which turns out to be especially relevant for the development of certain constructions.
Section 2 is devoted to passives with control verbs.It is shown that we need to distinguish strict control verbs like försöka 'try' from semi-control verbs like önska 'wish'.Danish and Norwegian allow complex passives with passive participles with both strict and semi-control verbs whereas Swedish only allows the latter type.In Section 3 I discuss cases where a passive V1 behaves as a subject-to-subject raising verb.This construction is common in all three languages.In Section 4 I show that Swedish has developed an alternative to the complex passive with strict control verbs: active control verbs with passive infinitives.In this Section I also trace the historical development to the middle of the 19th century.Section 5 looks briefly at so called double passives (Julien & Lødrup 2013) where the passive feature on V2 spreads onto V1.In Section 6 I look closer at the voice agreeing long passives with infinitives in Norwegian (Lødrup 2014), which are similar to long passives in German, and try to explain why their Swedish counterparts differ.Section 7 brings together the interaction between verb type, the form of the complement and the choice of passive form.Although there is considerable variation in the data, both within and across the languages, it is possible to discern certain patterns which I summarize in a table.

Strict control
In the 1980's several researchers started to investigate the so called complex passive in Norwegian (see e.g.Engh, 1984;Hellan, 1984;Christensen, 1986).
(No.) therefore became car.DEF tried repaired 'Therefore there was an attempt to repair the car.' In (2) the object bilen 'the car' of the embedded V2 passive participle reparert 'repaired' has been promoted to subject of the passive V1 ble forsøkt 'was tried' and is realized in the subject position (Spec,IP). 2There is no agent and the interpretation can be conveyed by a there-construction in English.
It was noted at the time that the Swedish version of ( 2) is clearly ungrammatical, both with the morphological s-passive and with the periphrastic bli-passive.It was concluded that Swedish lacks complex passives, despite the fact that Engh (1984), 18 mentions the example in ( 4) which looks very much like a complex passive; the subject målet 'the case' corresponds to the object of the embedded participle avgjort 'decided'.
(4) Målet önskas avgjort innan fredag.(Sw.) case.DEF wish.PRS.PAS decided before Friday 'It is desirable that the case be decided before Friday.' There have since been a number of studies on complex passive in Norwegian (see e.g.Christensen 1991;Engh 1994;Hellan 2001), and at least one on Danish (Ørsnes 2006).Since the term complex passive is also used for other constructions, I will refer to this type as control verb with passive participle, abbreviated CoPP.A schematic structure is shown in (5).(5) CoPP: SUBJ V1 PAS VP V2 PCP CoPP is, if not common, at least not unusual in present-day Danish and Norwegian. 3Both the morphological passive and the periphrastic passive can be used as shown in the following examples.(No. politilogg.no)tunnel.DEF 'An attempt is now made to repair the car in the tunnel.' (7)  (Da.politiken.dk)Monday AM 'There will be an attempt to resume the match at 11 o'clock on Monday.' The participle has the form that is used in the periphrastic passive in the language.I refer to this form as the passive participle and distinguish it from the invariant perfect participle or supine that is used in the perfect tense (Larsson 2009). 4In Danish and bokmål Norwegian 5 there is no agreement and the neuter singular form is used with all subjects.In the nynorsk variety, abbreviated NNo., the participle, in principle, agrees in number and gender with the subject (as in Swedish). 6See the second participle in (8).(8)  The number of first verbs that are used in CoPP is rather small.The most common ones are listed in (9). 7  (9) Danish: agte 'intend', forbyde 'forbid', forsøge 'try', pålaegge 'force' Norwegian: anbefale 'recommend', forsøke 'try', prøve 'try', søke 'seek' The verbs are typical subject or object control verbs; in the active they take an infinitival complement and the matrix subject or object and the understood subject of the infinitival clause are coreferential.They do not take finite complements and the predicate in the infinitival clause must be controllable (Zaenen 1993).These properties are illustrated in (10).
(10) a. Vi we try to perish In the passive, these verbs may combine with passive participles, see ( 6) and (7), and the matrix subject is understood as the internal argument of the participle.Supine forms (perfect participles of active verbs) are impossible and infinitival complements are dispreferred.CoPP is typically found with passive particples of transitive verbs; the participle can be predicated of the internal argument.(12) en repareret bil (Da.) a repaired car CoPP is not found with unaccusative V2 although such verbs can be predicated of the subject.This presumably follows from the fact that they are not controllable, see (10c).(13)  Examples of object control verbs used with CoPP are shown in ( 15) and ( 16).Note that neither of the contollers is expressed.In the nynorsk variety, the passive participles may show agreement with the matrix subject although this is no longer common, as noted above.Data like this have been used by e.g.Holmberg (2002) as evidence that the passive and the participle are reanalyzed as a complex predicate. 9Ørsnes (2006) argues against this analysis and points out that a complex predicate typically has a single external argument whereas the suppressed agents of the control verb and the participle need not be coreferential.Example ( 2) can be understood to convey that someone tries to arrange for the car to be repaired by someone else. 10 Furthermore complex predicate formation is not possible when the second verb has independent tense (Wurmbrand 2001, 79ff.)(No.) explained.PCP 'There is an attempt to suggest and explain both when variants are used and when they are not used.' In the English translations I have followed Ørsnes (2006) and tried to convey the meaning by using a paraphrase which introduces an event of trying, recommending, forbidding etc. Overt agent phrases are possible but are seldom present.In many ways, sentences with CoPP resemble impersonal passives, i.e. passives where no argument is promoted to subject, and it is not surprising that CoPP is also found in impersonal passives.CoPP is also found in presentational sentences in Danish and Norwegian, provided that the pivot (the subject associate) is indefinite (Ørsnes 2006, 394 The difference possibly has to do with whether the argument of the passive participle is expressed or not.CoPP with participles of unergative verb are unavailable when the argument is expressed, as in ( 14) and ( 24), but possible when the argument is suppressed, as in (22). 12 As mentioned above, corresponding examples of CoPP in Swedish are blatantly ungrammatical with both passive types, see (3).The same holds for object control verbs as shown in (25). 13  (25)  However with certain verbs that can be used as control verbs, the participle version is possible in Swedish as well.We have already seen an example with the verb önska 'wish' in (4), repeated here in (26).Another verb that is commonly used in the passive with a passive participle is begära 'request'.In formal genres the active verb begära can take an overt object followed by a participle.It thus resembles an ECM-verb (Postal 1974), but note that it cannot combine with an infinitive.27), (33a) and (34a) can be analyzed as passivized ECM-constructions.For Swedish this seems to be a plausible analysis which brings out the fact that only verbs that can be construed with a participial small clause allow CoPP.Note that strict control verbs need to be distinguished from semi-control verbs in Danish and Norwegian as well as the former don't allow overt objects.This presumably follows from the fact that strict control verbs only take infinitival complements with a controlled understood subject (PRO).Consequently there is no overt argument that can be raised to object.Previous studies of CoPP in Danish and Norwegian have not observed the need to distinguish between strict control and semi-control verbs, but this turns out to be important when we bring Swedish into the picture.The fact that semi-control verbs with overt objects cannot be used with infinitival complements in any of the languages becomes relevant when it comes to distinguishing CoPP from non-local passives with raising passives.The verb påstå 'claim' is not a control verb.In the active it takes a finite complement, not an infinitive; the understood subject in (38b) cannot be identified since it is not controlled.The subject of the passive verb påstås is interpreted as the understood subject of the infinitive ha 'have'.The construction thus resembles examples with a lexical subject-to-subject raising verb such as verka 'seem' in (40).
(Sw.) a journalist seems have disappeared 'A journalist seems to have disappeared.'Because of this similarity I refer to them as raising passives, short for verbs that in the passive resemble subject-to-subject raising verbs. 17In the Latin grammar tradition, the term used for this construction was Nominativus cum infinitivo (NCI) (Noël & Colleman 2009), to be distinguished from Accusativus cum infinitivo (ACI), see below.
Raising passives are formed with verbs of communication and cognition.Ørsnes (2013) dubs them reportive passive since they typically "attribute a proposition to a (generally) unknown external source" (2013,321).Raising passives are quite common in the Scandinavian languages and are found with around 50 verbs in Swedish (Lyngfelt 2011) and Danish (Ørsnes 2013).Faarlund et al. (1997Faarlund et al. ( , 1028) ) list eleven verbs that can be used as raising passives, mainly in written bokmål. 18 Examples of verbs that often used as raising passives are given in (41), in their Swedish version.

Raising passive with infinitive
Schematically raising passives with infinitive have the following structure. ( As shown above, these verbs take a finite subordinate clause in the active, see (38a).
The entire subordinate clause can be realized as the subject of the passive verb, as in (43a), although this is uncommon.The extraposed version in (43b) is somewhat more common, but the version where the subject has been raised out of an infinitival clause is most common, as in (39b), repeated here in (43c) (Lyngfelt 2011 These two tests can serve as diagnostics for distinguishing raising passives from passives with control verbs which are clearly ungrammatical with expletives and idiom chunks (Lødrup 2014, 372f.)Most of the raising passives in (41) can only be used as subject-to-subject raising verbs and cannot be construed with overt objects in the active.we say it rain often in Bergen In this respect the raising passives behave like say in contemporary English which can be construed with an infinitival clause in the passive but does not admit an overt object, see Los (2009), 119f. andNoël &Colleman (2009).
(53) a.He was said to have disappeared with the money.b. *They said him to have disappeared with the money.
However, a few raising passives can be used in the active with an object plus an infinitival complement, i.e. the construction known as accusative with infinitive (ACI) or exceptional case marking (ECM), see e.g.Postal (1974) and Lødrup (2008).The corresponding Danish verb is construed with an object and a prepositional complement.
(56) a. Han anses for at vaere en forraeder.he consider.PAS for to be a traitor.b.Man anser ham for at vaere en forraeder.(Ørsnes 2013, 328) one considers him for to be a traitor 'People consider him to be a traitor.' Given that the verb anse can be used in the active with an overt object, the passive versions can be analyzed as subject to object raising followed by regular passive.However, the majority of raising passives are not ECM-verbs and do not take overt Passive with control and raising in mainland Scandinavian objects in the active. 22For this reason I follow Lyngfelt (2011) and Ørsnes (2013) and analyze most of the raising passives as instances of subject-to-subject raising, not as passivized ECM constructions.Note furthermore that when the exceptional verb anse is used with an overt object, the infinitival V2 is practically always a copula verb.The other raising passive verbs are used with a variety of V2 verbs as shown in the examples.

Raising passive with participle
What has seldom been made explicit in the literature is that passive raising verbs also can be used with passive participles, abbreviated RaPP, with the following structure.
All the verbs listed in (41) can be used with passive participles, with varying frequency.The Swedish example in (37) is repeated here as ( 58 Recall that in the active, these verbs take a finite complement without imposing any constraints on the type of subject or verb.In the raising passive construction only transitive verbs and unaccusative intransitive verbs are possible, as noted by Engh (1994)  Just as with control verbs, this restriction presumably follows from the argument structure of the participle; participles of unergative verbs cannot be predicated of the single argument, see ( 14), (Hellan 2001;Platzack 2010) The exceptional verb anse, which can be used with an overt object plus infinitive in all three languages as discussed in Section 3.1, can also be used with object plus participle.In the majority of the cases, the object is a reflexive pronoun, as in (66) (Lyngfelt 2011).
(66) Hon anser sig mobbad, motarbetad och diskriminerad.(Sw.BM07) she considers REFL bullied.PCP, opposed.PCP and discriminated.PCP 'She considers herself being bullied, opposed and discriminated.' A few examples with non-reflexive objects were found in the corpus searches.In (67) det is an anticipating expletive for the extraposed infinitival clause.
(67) Man kanske ansett det uteslutet att använda rött.(Sw.BM07) one maybe considered it excluded.PCP to use red 'Maybe people had considered it impossible to use red.'

Summary
Raising passives are used in all three languages.They differ from both strict and semi-control verbs in that they can take expletive subjects and raised idiom chunks.The main criterion is whether V1 can be used as a control verb or not.None of the verbs in (41) can take an infinitival complement in the active whereas they often do in the passive.
Semantically raising and control passives differ in perspective; raising passives typically report on a state of affairs, a proposition, whereas control and semi-control verbs express a relation to a future state of affairs. 25There are a few verbs which can do both and which take both sentential and infinitival complements.One such verb is frygte, frykte, frukta 'fear'.In all three languages this verb can in the active be used with both complement types, with sentential complements being more frequent.See the Norwegian examples in (68).
(No. NoWaC) 'The researchers fear that a whole generation mobile phone users may be hit by early aging of the brain.' b.Godt over halvparten svarer at de ikke frykter å bli rammet av arbeidsledighet etter endt skolegang.
(No. NoWaC) 'Well over half reply that they don't fear being hit by unemployment after finishing school.' This verb can also be used as a raising passive in all three languages and in Danish and Norwegian it is found with passive participles.
( Given that the verb is frequently used in the s-passive as a raising passive, it seems plausible that the example in (69b) should be analyzed as a RaPP construction and not as a CoPP with an unaccusative verb, as has sometimes been assumed (Engh 1994).The fact that the bli-passive is not possible, (69c), further supports the RaPP analysis, compare (49). 26We can thus maintain our generalization in Section 2 that CoPP is only found with controllable transitive verbs.Raising passives do not impose any selection on the type of verb in the complement.

The Swedish strategy
Let us return to the strict control passives in Danish and Norwegian and consider what message they convey.The Danish example in (7b) is repeated here as (70).The message is that there are plans to try to resume the match at a later time.We have seen that this cannot be expressed with a CoPP construction in Swedish, see ( 3)and ( 25), but the same message can be conveyed by an active strict control verb followed by a passive infinitive.I refer to this construction as CoPI.The construction can also be found in legal texts which presumably have been carefully worded.This suggests that it has become part of standard language, although rather infrequently used.All the examples of the CoPI construction in Swedish given so far have inanimate subjects or the expletive det.This presumably blocks the ordinary control interpretation as inanimate referents cannot be agents of försöka. 29But animate subjects are possible if the context makes it clear that someone else is responsible for making the attempt.
(82) Ytterligare två medarbetare ska försöka rekryteras till IT-avdelningen.(Sw.) another two employees shall try recruit.PAS.INF to IT department.DEF 'There will be an attempt to recruit two more employees to the IT department.' There is an interesting interaction with the choice of passive form.In a regular control construction with a passive infinitival complement, the bli-passive is strongly preferred in Swedish, see Engdahl (2006, 32)  As mentioned above in Section 2, control verbs presuppose that the subject has some control over the situation.In (83a), the subject is understood to have acted in a way so that s/he would be reelected, whereas this interpretation is not available for (83b).The use of s-passives in the CoPI construction thus contributes to the interpretation that someone else is responsible for bringing about the event.
In One further observation can be made here.In the CoPI examples, the control verbs are often modified by temporal or modal auxiliaries, see e.g. ( 82).With an unmodified verb, the example is somewhat less acceptable.
(86) ?Ytterligare två medarbetare försöker rekryteras till IT-avdelningen.another two employees try recruit.PAS.INF to IT department.DEF 'There is an attempt to recruit two more employees to the IT department.' The auxiliaries ska 'shall' and måste 'must' are common in CoPI examples.It may be that these auxiliaries add an indirectness that helps block the regular control assignment.

Has 'försöka' become a raising verb in Swedish?
The syntactic frame in (71) resembles that of a lexical raising verb like verka 'seem'.One hypothesis that comes to mind is that försöka, söka and våga have developed into auxiliary-like raising verbs in present-day Swedish, similar to aspectual auxiliaries like börja 'begin', sluta 'end' and fortsätta 'continue'.In present-day Swedish these verbs allow raised subjects.
(88) Lasten började lossas följande dag.(Sw.) load.DEF began unload.PAS.INF following day 'The cargo began to be unloaded the following day.' Bylin (2013) has studied what she calls the auxiliation process of these verbs in the history of Swedish. 31The oldest examples with börja 'begin' have animate subjects, (89a), but quite early the verb starts to be used with inanimate subjects, as in (89b).Expletive subjects, (89c), turn up around 1750 and around the same time Bylin finds the first examples with a passive infinitive, (89d). 32  (89) a. Och alla började då gråta.
(  Holmberg (2002), 122 cites the presentational example in (91) as evidence that försöka has undergone restructuring to a raising verb which can take an expletive subject.
(91) Det försökte komma en massa studenter.(Sw.)EXPL tried come a bunch students 'There were a lot of students who tried to come.' However försöka still requires the pivot (subject associate) to be animate which means it is still a control verb, as noted by Wiklund (2005, 45) Engh (1994) includes a survey of the emergence of non-local passive constructions in Norwegian. 35He traces the first appearances of strict control verbs with passive participles to the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century.The first verbs to be used are søke 'seek', attested in 1761, and forsøke 'try' from 1837 (Engh 1994, 302  During the 19th century the CoPP construction became noticeably more frequent.Engh (1994, 283) attributes this to the growth of newspapers and in particular to the increased use of advertisements.
Corpus searches for corresponding s-passive forms of söka and försöka followed by a passive participle in the Swedish historical corpora in Korp (1,35 G)  However, the meaning is clear: someone else must not try to force everybody to get married in a rush.Similarly in (106), it is someone else who tries to win over the military on their side.It is maybe not surprising that the CoPI construction started to spread during the 19th century when several other control verbs began to be used as raising verbs, allowing an underlying object of a passive infinitive to raise to become subject.We have seen this development with aspectual verbs like börja 'begin' in (89d).Even more common is this pattern with hinna 'have time to' (about 12 000 hits in the historical corpus, 1,3 G).But recall that the CoPI verbs have not developed into raising verbs, see Section 4.2.

Summary
The CoPI construction in Swedish seems to correspond quite closely to the CoPP construction in Danish and Norwegian.Nevertheless the CoPI construction has not become as established in Swedish as the CoPP pattern in Danish and Norwegian.CoPP is used rather frequently, in many genres and with both subject and object control verbs and can, at least in principle, be iterated.Christensen 1986, 136) 'There was an attempt to have a recommendation that the book be translated.' CoPI in Swedish has only been found with three subject control verbs, försöka, söka and våga, and the low incidence (less than 0.3 per million words in the investigated corpora) indicates that it is not very productive.The small number of possible verbs makes it hard to test whether CoPI can be iterated.The following constructed example sounds marginally acceptable to me.

Double passives
The non-local passive constructions discussed in the previous sections need to be distinguished from two other constructions which are discussed in this and the following section.In Danish, Norwegian and Swedish a modal or temporal auxiliary verb may show up in the passive when the main verb is passive, as shown in ( 110 They suggest that this may be a consequence of the preference for inanimate subjects with s-passive, see Engdahl (2006) and Laanemets (2012).
Double passive is also found with temporal and aspectual auxiliaries in all three languages, see Julien & Lødrup (2013) for frequencies.In Swedish V2 is practically always an s-passive, but in Norwegian V2 can also be a bli-passive.
(114) Hans musikk vil likevel fortsettes å bli spilt over hele his music will still continue.PAS to become played.PCP over whole verden.
(No. Julien & Lødrup 2013, 234) world 'Still, his music will continue to be played over the whole world.'Double passives are mainly found in informal, unedited texts.The example in (115) was part of a recorded message.The future auxiliary komma has a doubled s-form which is otherwise not used.
(Sw. telephone 2021) your call can come.PAS to play.PAS in 'Your call may be recorded.' Normative grammars frown on double passives but they seem to have been in use for a long time, as Julien & Lødrup (2013) note.The earliest examples are from the 15th and 16th centuries and the construction becomes rather common during the 19th century.Given that the passive form of V1 is dependent on V2 being passive, it seems likely that the passive feature spreads from V2 to V1. 42

Long passives
In Section 2.1 we looked at passive control verbs like forsøkes with passive participles, CoPP.But passive control verbs can also be used with a passive infinitive, as in the Norwegian examples in (116) from Lødrup (2014, 368) Lødrup (2014) takes the examples in ( 116) to be instances of long passive in which two verbs are reanalyzed as one complex predicate and the internal argument of V2 is promoted to subject of V1, see Wurmbrand (2001).Other terms for this phenomenon is long-distance passives (Bader & Schmid 2009) and long object movement (Wurmbrand & Lohninger 2022).Long passives with infinitival V2 are found in several European languages, including German and French (Wurmbrand 2001;Wurmbrand & Shimamura 2017;Hob ae k Haff & Lødrup 2016), as well as in many Austronesian languages (Wurmbrand & Lohninger 2022).In the European languages, the matrix verb, V1, is always passive and the embedded verb, V2, is an infinitive.In German this infinitive is active, see (117), in French, it can be either active or passive, see (118).In all cases the subject corresponds to the internal argument of the embedded infinitive.Long passives differ from double passives in that it is V1 that must be passive.In double passives it is the other way round; V2 must be passive.Double passives in Scandinavian are mainly found with temporal and modal auxiliaries whereas long passives can be used with both aspectual and control verbs, see the overview for German in Wurmbrand (2001, 327).
Using corpora and native speaker intuitions, Lødrup shows that in Norwegian, long passive is found with several different control verbs, including verbs that cannot be used in CoPP.For example the verb huske 'remember' can be used in long passives but not in CoPP, compare (116b) and ( 119).Lødrup (2014) takes this as evidence that the examples in (116) arise through voice agreement, optional spreading of the passive feature from V1 to V2.Part of his evidence for this analysis comes from the existence of similar feature spreading with active verbs, as in (121a).Here V1 is a supine, an active perfect participle, and this feature has spread to the embedded V2; the expected form would be an infinitive.Examples that resemble the Norwegian examples in (116) can be found in Danish and Swedish as well.In Danish the construction is found with huskes 'be remembered' and ønskes 'be desired'.(Da.dba.dk) pieces 'We have more of them if there is a wish to buy more than one.'Especially the type in (123c) is common on the internet.No examples with forsøges plus a passive infinitive were found in KorpusDK and Ørsnes (2006) finds the constructed example in (11), repeated here as (125), with an infinitival bli-passive unacceptable.The pattern with passive försöka followed by an active infinitival clause is only found with extraposed infinitival complements in Swedish, see (129a).Note the overt infinitive marker which is obligatory in extraposition. 44The non-extraposed version in (129b) is possible but hardly used.
(Sw.BM10) pest corpses 'There have been attempts to take DNA tests on remains from pest corpses.' b.Att ta DNA-prov har försökts.to take DNA samples has tried.SUP.PAS 'Taking DNA tests has been tried.' In Norwegian, an extraposed infinitival clause can be passive, see (130) from Lødrup (2014, 369) Both these differences follow if we assume that the spreading goes from V1 to V2 in Norwegian, as Lødrup (2014) assumes, but from V2 to V1 in Swedish. 46Since passive forsøkes can be used in the CoPP construction in Norwegian, it is conceivable that it can also be used with an infinitive with spreading of the passive feature to the infinitival V2.This raises the question whether the Swedish examples in (125) should be analyzed as long passives, as Lødrup (2014) does.An alternative presents itself which makes use of the fact that Swedish has the CoPI construction where an active control verb is followed by a passive infinitive.Since this resembles the precondition for double passives, see (110), the Swedish examples could arise through the same kind of feature spreading from V2 to V1 that we find in double passives.Given that both the CoPI construction in (132a), and the double passive in (132b) are used, then (132c) could arise through an extension of the feature spreading in double passive to CoPI verbs.There was one CoPI version without particle in Korp which actually sounds better.This illustrates that there is a lot of subtle variation, partly due to choice of tense, as well as considerable context sensitivity.Since Swedish differs from Norwegian in that V2 is always passive in these examples, it seems that Lødrup's analysis, based on optional voice agreement, is not applicable.In the Swedish data that I have looked at so far, it seems that the passive feature can spread from V2 to V1, as in double passives, also in CoPI constructions.The data come mainly from informal written media and there is considerable variation.Informants that I have consulted are often uncertain whether they could use a particular sentence themselves.More research is clearly needed. 47

Concluding remarks
In this article I have described several non-local passive constructions involving more than one verb which are used, with varying frequency, in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish and which can be difficult to tease apart.At least the following distinctions need to be made.First, passive with control verbs needs to be distinguished from sentences where the first verb is a raising passive, i.e. a passive of a reporting verb.The latter type is found not only in the Scandinavian languages but is well known from e.g.Latin and English.Unlike these languages, however, most raising passives in Scandinavian cannot be derived via subject-to-object raising.Second, we need to distinguish strict control verbs like försöka 'try', which don't alternate with finite complements and which never allow overt objects, from semi-control verbs, like begära 'request', which also take finite complements and which, to some extent, can be used with overt objects.Whereas Danish and Norwegian use complex passives with participles with both kinds of control verbs, this is only possible with semi-control verbs in Swedish.Third, the form of the complement matters.Complex passive is only found with passive participles (CoPP) whereas raising passives can be used with both passive participles (RaPP) and infinitives.Fourth, regarding the choice of passive form in V1, CoPP can be used with both morphological and periphrastic passive in Danish and Norwegian.In raising passives, double passives and long passives, the morphological s-passive is clearly dominant although examples with the periphastic bli-passive can be found in Norwegian.In Table 1 I summarize how the different verb types can be used with participial and infinitival complements.
Starting from the leftmost column, we see that in Danish and Norwegian, strict control verbs, which in the active are only used with infinitival complements, can in the passive be used with passive participles (the CoPP construction) whereas this is not possible in Swedish, see Section 2.1.Instead Swedish uses the CoPI construction with an active V1 followed by a passive infinitival V2, see Section 4. In all three languages, semi-control verbs, which are used with both finite and infinitival complements, can be used with passive participles, but not with passive infinitives.This is discussed in Section 2.2.The last row shows that raising passives, i.e. passive forms of reporting verbs such as påstå 'claim' which take sentential complements, can be used with both passive participles and passive infinitives, as shown in Section 3. The column ECM shows that strict control verbs cannot be used with overt objects.Semi-control verbs can take objects but only with passive participles, see 2.2.As for raising passives, most of the verbs do not allow overt objects but there are some verbs that do, see (54b).
In addition to the CoPP, CoPI and RaPP constructions, passive forms of auxiliaries and control verbs can also be used with passive infinitives, see Sections 5 and 6.The two rightmost columns, Double passive and Long passive, indicate two ways of analyzing such examples, see ( 110) and ( 116), repeated here as ( 136) and ( 137).In a double passive, as in (136), the passive feature spreads from V2 to V1 (Julien & Lødrup 2013).In a long passive, as in (137), the passive feature spreads from V1 to V2 by optional voice agreement, (Lødrup 2014).The differences between Norwegian and Swedish discussed in Section 6 suggest that the Swedish examples with strict control verbs arise through an extension of the double passive spreading from V2 to V1, indicated by a plus in the Double passive column and a minus in the Long passive column.For Danish and Norwegian, it is the other way around according to Lødrup (2014);Lødrup (in prep.).For semi-control verbs there is considerable variation in the data and more research on these types is needed, as indicated by the question marks in these columns.It is also not clear if raising passives of reporting verbs should be subsumed under long passives.Lødrup (2014, 373) mentions that some Norwegian examples are ambiguous between a raising passive analysis and a voice agreeing long passive analysis.In Swedish these examples must be analyzed as raising passives.Finally, it is not clear that Danish behaves exactly like Norwegian with respect to double passives and long passives, as suggested in the table.There is clearly a need for investigating more Danish data.
In this article I have concentrated on describing the variation found among the mainland Scandinavian languages.It would be desirable to look at the emerging patterns in a wider cross-linguistic perspective and to relate my verb classification to other proposals in the literature as well as to the discussion of complex predicate formation.Hopefully my attempt at systematizing the Scandinavian data will prove to be useful to other researchers.returning hits with frequent deponent forms like finnas 'exist' and hoppas 'hope', I used the search string in (i) for s-passive.
(i) [lemma not contains ".*s" & msd = "VB.*SFO"]15.Compare The children were promised to be allowed to stay up late.In most of the around 700 hits in Korp (2.1G), the infinitival clause is headed by få 'get'.Önska is used both with and without få.There are also differences between Norwegian and Swedish concerning the form of the complements of få, see Taraldsen (2010).16.In Danish begaere and ønske can be used both with finite complements and small participial clauses.In Norwegian, begjaere with a small clause is much less frequent than the CoPP version; (around six in the 700 million word corpus NoWaC, compared with over a hundred for CoPP).It is not used with a finite complement.Ønske is used with a finite complement but hardly with a small clause.17.The term raising passive should not be understood as 'passive raising verbs'.As one reviewer pointed out, raising verbs cannot be passivized since they are unaccusative.
(i) *John was seemed to work.
18.The Scandinavian reference grammars use the following terms: subjektslyfting 'subject raising' (Faarlund et al. 1997, subjekt med infinitiv 'subject with infinitive' (Teleman et al. 1999, 1:227) and subjekt med nominal infinitiv 'subject with nominal infinitive' (Hansen & Heltoft 2011, 1432).Ørsnes (2013) discusses the claim made by Boye (2002) that some of the raising passives in Danish are not really regular passives but grammaticalized evidentiality markers (see also Noël & Colleman (2009)).Ørsnes argues convincingly that they behave as full passive verbs when it comes to syntactic tests like Neg raising and tag question formation.Raising passives are found in English, see ( 53), but not in German (Ørsnes 2013, 329) or modern Dutch, although they have been used in earlier stages (Noël & Colleman 2009), 19.Some examples may look like raising passives but are in actual fact passivized object control verbs.See (i), from Lyngfelt (2011, 215).(Sw.Korp) statues.DEF were thought to stand in Lenin-park.DEF 'The statues were intended to stand in the Lenin park.' 21.I thank Marit Julien for pointing this out to me.22.Besides anse only förklara 'declare' and rapportera 'report' are used with overt objects in the Swedish corpus Korp.For Norwegian Lødrup (2008), 162 mentions forvente 'expect' in addition to anse.In all three languages some of the verbs in (41) can be used with an overt object in the active, provided that the object has been relativized or topicalized, presumably an instance of the Derived Object Constraint (Postal 1974), or is a reflexive pronoun.See Teleman et al. (1999, Vol. 3, 576) and the discussions in Lødrup (2008), Lyngfelt (2011), Ørsnes (2013) and Ramhöj (2016) proposal.DEF adopted.PCP 'Everyone is expecting the proposal to be adopted.' The corresponding verbs in Norwegian and Swedish are not used with overt objects.25.One reviewer pointed out that there are similarities with the complementation hierarchy proposed in Wurmbrand & Lohninger (2022), intended to reflect the degree of integration of the complement.Complements of raising predicates are Propositions with independent tense, complements of semi-control verbs are Situations, interpreted as irrealis, and complements of strict control verbs (including implicatives) are Events (properties).However, not all strict control verbs can be used in the CoPP and CoPI constructions.26.The RaPP version has not been attested with frukta in Swedish, but can be used with the semantically similar verb befara 'fear'.This shows that there are lexical idiosyncrasies, as also indicated in notes 23 and 24.
(i) Några fiskare befaras omkomna.(Sw.) some fishermen fear.PAS perished.PCP.PL 'It is feared that some fishermen have perished.'27.Searches for active forms of försöka followed by a passive infinitive yielded about 300 hits in the 2.1 G default selection of present-day Swedish texts in Korp.28.Språkriktighetsboken, a guide to correct language, advises against using våga 'dare' with a passive infinitive, which is a sure sign that it is being used in that way (Svenska språknämnden 2007, 278ff.).The more common verbs försöka and söka are not discussed.29.Bader & Schmid (2009) finds experimental support that inanimate subjects make long passives easier to process in German.30.Thanks to Helge Lødrup for bringing (84) to my attention.31.Bylin (2013) in addition investigates the development of the verbs bruka 'use to', hota 'threaten' and tendera 'tend' using tests from Teleman et al. (1999, Vol. 2, 508ff.).32.The examples are here rendered in modern Swedish spelling.See Bylin (2013, 141ff.)for the original examples and sources.33.Even if the presentational example in ( 91) is acceptable, it is hardly used.A search in Korp (2.1 G) gave no hits.Ørsnes (2006, 391) notes that a presentatonal sentence is possible in Danish with forsøge but not with the other strict control verbs agte 'intend' and pålaegge 'force'.34.There were no hits with active forsøke, forsøge and passive infinitive in NoWAC or KorpusDK.Lødrup (2014), 388, note 8 cites one example with active prøve 'try' followed by a passive infinitive, which presumably is a CoPI construction.37. Jan Engh (e-mail 2021) suggests that (99) may be influenced by a Norwegian source.38.The oldest example I have found so far is from a political pamphlet from 1784 by J.H.Kjellgren.
(i) Jag kände mig inte ett dugg bekväm med de resultat som försöktes få fram av I felt REFL not a drop comfortable with the results that tried.PAS get forth by forskare, professorer och jag vet inte allt.(Sw.BM14) researchers professors and I know not all 'I didn't feel at all comfortable with the results that researchers, professors and what not tried to bring forth.' 44.This pattern is quite common in Norwegian as well.A search for forsøkes å in NoWaC yielded around 70 examples, about half with extraposition and active V2 and half with passive V2. 45.Note that when the expletive det is in subject position (Spec,IP) it may be left out in extraposition contexts, as discussed in Engdahl (2012).Expletive subjects can be left out in Norwegian as well in similar circumstances (Engdahl 2012, 130).This means that some of Lødrup's examples with active V2 could be analyzed as involving extraposition in which case the initial DP is not a subject in a long passive but has been topicalized from the infinitival clause.The example in (120) would then be analyzed as in (iii).
considered him to be completely crazy.'(55) a. Dette anses å vaere en fordel.(No.Lødrup 2008) this consider.PAS to be an advantage 'This is considereed to be an advantage.b.Internett-brukerne anser dette å vaere en fordel.internet-users.DEF consider this to be an advantage 'The internet users consider this to be an advantage.'

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Kampen bliver forsøgt genoptaget klokken 11 mandag formiddag.match.DEF becomes attempted.PCP resumed.PCP clock.DEF 11 Monday AM (Da.politiken.dk)'There will be an attempt to resume the match at 11 o'clock on Monday.' .INF now 'The cargo seems to be unloaded now.' tries win.INF.PAS through concessions 'Someone tries to win over the military through concessions.' settle.INF.PAS 'I deeply regret that there has not yet been time to stop the fighting between Holland and Belgium.' method.DEF must dare.INF try.INF use.INF.PAS 'Someone must dare make an attempt to use the method.' experiment.DEF remember.PAS conducted.PCP in Bergen As shown by the German and French examples above, the passive feature can be realized on both V1 and V2 or just on V1 in long passives.Lødrup shows that this applies to Norwegian long passives as well.In addition to examples like (116), there are parallel examples where V2 is active, as in (120).

(
120) en slik situasjon bør forsøkes å gjøre noe med (No. a such situation ought.totry.INF.PAS to do.INF something with Lødrup 2014, 373) 'One should try to do something about this kind of situation.' Swedish ski-fans become crazy because an asthma medicin has glömt att registreras av förbundet.(Sw.Twitter) forgotten to register.INF.PAS by association.DEF 'Swedish ski supporters go crazy because the association has forgotten to register an asthma medicine.'Passive with control and raising in mainland Scandinavian PASS write out certain medicines 'Nurses will be allowed to prescribe certain medicines.'20.The future oriented verbs planera 'plan' and tänka 'intend' are an exception in that they are only used with an overt infinitive marker.(i)En bro planeras att byggas över Lärjeån.(Sw.Korp) a bridge plan.PAS to build.PAS over Lärje-river.DEF 'They are planning to build a new bridge over the Lärje river.' (i) Aktivitetene må prøve å gjøres så billige som mulig.(No.) activities.DEF must try to make.INF.PAS as cheap as possible 'One must try to make activities as cheap as possible,' 35.Engh investigated more than 400 possible first verbs (V1) in texts from 1200 to 1975, grouping the verbs according to semantic and syntactic features.36.The earliest example in Engh's survey is the object control verb påby 'order' used with the stative copula (p.302).(i) De usedvanlige schatter bel.a ware epter Hr Oluff Paszbergs befal.paabudet the unusual taxes be.SUBJ after Mr Oluff Paszberg.GEN command ordered.PCP indfordret (No. 1643) collected.PCP 'Concerning the extraordinary taxes that Mr Oluff Paszberg ordered should be collected : : : ' I thank Jan Engh for help with the translation.
(i) I arbetet med Cass-Swe [ : : : ], har (det) tidigare försökts att sammanfoga efterställda in work.DEF with Cass-Swe has (EXPL) earlier tried.PAS to combine postposed attribut till nominalfraser (Sw.Korp Academic prose) modifiers to noun phrases 'In the work on Swe-Cass, an attempt was made earlier to combine postposed modifiers into noun phrases.'That (i) involves extraposition can be shown by a test first proposed in Falk (1993, 102); extraposed clauses cannot be topicalized.(ii) Att sammanfoga efterställda attribut har (*det) tidigare försökts.to combine postposed modifiers has (EXPL) earlier tried.PAS (EXPL) try.INF.PAS to do.INF something with 'One should try to do something about this kind of situation.' 'Yesterday there was an attempt to steal a front end loader in Jølster.' but the two verbs in CoPP may have different reference times.car.DEF ask.PRES.PAS moved.PCP before midnight 'We request that the car be moved before midnight.'Another indication that CoPP does not involve complex predicate formation is the existence of examples like (21) where two participles are conjoined. 11 ).
When used with an infinitive, the understood subject must be controllable.Regular transitive verbs are infelicitous unless they are preceded by a verb like få 'get', see (29).This induces a control shift similar to examples with promise.15Theinfinitival complement can also be expressed as a bli-passive, as in (30).
At first glance the example in (37) looks like a CoPP but closer inspection reveals that it is not.
Like other raising verbs, raising passives do not assign a thematic role to the subject.If the embedded verb takes an expletive subject, so does the raising passive, and idiom chunks can appear as subjects.
). 19 (43) a. Att en journalist har blivit mördad påstås på nyheterna.(Sw.) that a journalist has become murdered claim.PAS on news.DEF 'That a journalist has been murdered is claimed in the news.b.Det påstås att en journalist har blivit mördad it fear.PAS that a journalist has become murdered 'It is claimed that a journalist has been murdered.'c.En journalist påstås ha blivit mördad.a journalist claim.PAS have become murdered 'A journalist is claimed to have been murdered.''They claim to have had enough.' [idiom] Faarlund et al. (1997)raising passives are typically construed with a bare infinitive without infinitive marker, as shown in the examples above.20InDanishraisingpassives, the overt infinitive marker at is used, see (46).motor.DEF expect.PASS to achieve around 165 HP 'The motor is expected to achieve approximately 165 HP.'According toFaarlund et al. (1997), the infinitive marker å is used with Norwegian raising passives, see (47a), but there is actually variation and examples without å are also found, see (47b) and (47c).21It is difficult to distinguish between products that really are natural and those that are only claimed to be natural.'Inall three languages, only s-passives are used productively; the bli-passive is seldom used with raising passives.
Faarlund et al. 1997t.PASS not to become more peacefulFaarlund et al. 1997Faarlund et al.  , 1027)  )'The new year is not expected to be more peaceful.'b.EDB ventes levere solide overskudd.(No.NoWaC) EDB wait.PASS deliver solid surplus 'EDB is expected to deliver a solid surplus.
who gives the pair of examples in (61).
Intended: 'It is assumed that Gro has laughed.' .

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CoPI: SUBJ V1 ACT VP V2 INF:PASS I start by looking at this construction in modern Swedish and show in Section 4.2 that it is not a raising construction.I end by tracing its historical origin in Section 4.3.Note that neither the version with bli-passive in (72b) nor the bare passive participle in (72c) is grammatical.Many of the hits are from unedited informal blog texts.
to assume that money laundering has taken place or that there has been an attempt to do so : : : 'The construction is most common with försöka but occasional examples are found with the verbs söka 'seek' and våga 'dare'. 2876) a. Problem av detta slag måste alltid aktivt söka lösas.(Sw.GP07) problems of this kind must always actively seek solve.PAS.INF 'One should always seek to solve problems of this kind actively.'It is a mixture of truths that nobody dares express when sober.' b.Fredrik Reinfeldt har varit tydlig med att ett parti måste ständigt Fredrik Reinfeldt has been clear with that a party must constantly förnyas och politiken måste våga omprövas.(Sw.BM09) renew.PAS.INF and politic.DEF must dare reevaluate.PAS.INF 'Fredrik Reinfeldt has been very clear that a party has to be constantly renewed and that one must dare reevaluate the politics.'CoPIin Swedish seems to be restricted to a few strict control verbs and there are no indications that the construction is spreading to semantically similar verbs.It has not been attested with the verbs orka 'have enough energy to' or slippa 'avoid, not have to', and the constructed examples in (78) do not seem acceptable.DEF has the energy unload.PAS.INF now Intended: 'Nobody has the energy to unload the cargo now.' b. *Lasten slipper lossas.load.DEF not has to unload.PAS.INF Intended: 'The cargo doesn't have to be unloaded.'Theconstruction has not been found with object control verbs, like rekommendera, or with semi-control verbs like begära 'request'.Mannen ska begära häktas.man.DEF shall request arrest.INF.PAS As shown by the paraphrases, the interpretations of the examples in (73)-(77) resemble the interpretations given for the CoPP examples in Danish and Norwegian.A further indication that the CoPI construction is functionally equivalent to the Danish and Norwegian CoPP is that it can be used in presentational sentences, see (80), and impersonal passives, see (81) (slightly adapted from a blog example).'Therewill be an attempt to build electric cars in Trollhättan.' b. och på något vis ska det försöka klämmas in lite annat and on some way shall EXPL try squeeze.INF.PAS PART little other också(Sw.BM07) also 'and somehow there will be an attempt to squeeze in some other stuff too' EXPL shall try build.INF.PAS cars/ cars.DEF in Trollhättan.
from where the examples in (83) are taken (see also (30)).
Danish and Norwegian as well, most of the attested examples of CoPP have inanimate subjects, but animate subjects are possible.30 yielded no examples but there were a few examples with bli-passive, both from the newspaper DEF from Norway where during short on each other following tidsperioder denna frihet blifvit försökt öfvergifven : : : (Aftonbladet 1859) time periods this freedom become tried.PCP abandoned.PCP 'The example from Norway where within a short period of time there had been an attempt to abandon this freedom : : : ' There were no examples from later periods, nor from other genres.I take this as an indication that CoPP did not become established in Swedish at the time when it increased rapidly in Norwegian.However, in the historical corpora I found around 30 examples of the CoPI construction with active söka, försöka or våga, followed by a passive infinitive. 38ive with control and raising in mainland ScandinavianThe following example is one of only a few with an overt agent phrase:We noticed above that most of the modern examples of CoPI have an inanimate subject, i.e. a subject that cannot be interpreted as the agent of the control verb.The same is true for most of the examples from the 19th century with a few exceptions.In (105) the subject is alla 'everybody'.
Julien & Lødrup (2013)boken(Svenska språknämnden 2007, 280).thepassive, as in (110).If V2 is not passive, then only active forms of behöva are possible.40Unliketheraisingpassivein(111),doublepassivesonlyinvolve one passive predicate, asJulien & Lødrup (2013)point out.Only the main verb, V2, is passivized and the passive feature has spread from V2 to V1.41Julien & Lødrup (2013) also note that double passives are only found with inanimate subjects and constructed examples with animate subjects are judged to be strange.Ola needs.PAS not to wash.PAS every single day Intended: 'Ola need not be washed every single day.' PASThe active verb behöva 'need' has developed into a raising verb with modal meaning.39Thepassive form tends to be found when the infinitival complement is in . that washing.machine.DEF must remember.PAS to turn.INF.PAS on 'that you should remember to turn the washing machine on' Lødrup (2014) 100 examples of long passives thatLødrup (2014)found, V1 is most often an s-passive, but bli-passives are possible.V2 is most often also an s-passive.He notes that examples with long passive vary in accptability, both within and across speakers.Nevertheless they have been used at least since the 19th century, see (122) from the Norwegian newspaper Morgenbladet in 1843, supplied by Helge Lødrup.
PAS PART to print.INF.PAS out 'one forgets to print out some things' Just as in Norwegian, such examples have been used in Swedish for a long time.In the historical corpus, there are examples from newspapers starting from the 19th century.INF.PAS on more than one way 'There have been attempts to interpret the expression "considerable reduction of the ability to work" in more than one way.'But there are also some differences compared to the Norwegian data.First, V2 in the infinitival clause is always an s-passive; no examples with periphrastic passives have been found.Second, there are hardly any examples with active V2, apart from examples like (127) which are standard in advertisements.One should try to do something about this kind of situation.' .
DEF has tried.SUP.PAS keep.INF.PAS secret 'One has tried to keep this thing secret.'An additional indication that there is a kind of double passive spreading in CoPI constructions comes from the fact that we find this also in impersonal passives, cf.(81).EXPL try.INF.PAS clean.INF.PAS here home 'There will now be an attempt to clean the house.'However, it is not clear that all apparent long passives in Swedish arise as double passives of CoPI constructions.There are several long passive examples with the verb glömma 'forget', see (125b), but the CoPI version sounds unacceptable, both with and without the particle bort.

Table 1 .
Overview of verb types and constructions in non-local passives in Danish and Norwegian and Swedish . 23.In Danish and Norwegian, RaPP examples are used in many genres.In Swedish RaPP examples are mainly found in newspaper headlines where they alternate with infinitival periphrastic passives, as in (i).PAS have.INF become murdered.PCP 'It is claimed that a journalist has been murdered.'24.The Danish verb forvente 'expect' is an exception to this.