Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-x24gv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-04T18:19:11.331Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Ernest Amory Codman, M.D., and End Results of Medical Care

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 March 2009

Duncan Neuhauser
Affiliation:
Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine

Abstract

Ernest Amory Codman, M.D., was one of the most important figures in the history of outcomes research in medicine. While his contemporaries scorned his efforts to create systematic procedures to evaluate the end results of medical care, his work foreshadowed many of today's most pressing issues in technology assessment. This arti traces Codman's career as an innovator and political gadfly at the Massachusetts General Hospital during the first three decades of this century, and examines the development and demise of his end-result system.

Type
General Essays
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1990

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1American College of Surgeons. Hospital standardization preliminary survey of hospital conditions. Questionnaire form, Chicago, IL: ACS, circa 1918, 4.Google Scholar
2American College of Surgeons. Manual of hospital standardization. Chicago, IL: ACS, 1938, 96.Google Scholar
3Beecher, H. K.The first anesthesia records (Codman, Cushing). Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 1940, 71, 689–93.Google Scholar
4Benison, S., Barger, A. C., & Wolfe, E. L.Walter B. Cannon: The life and limes of ayoung scientist. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.Google Scholar
5Bowman, J. G.Investigation of hospital conditions, report of the director. Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons, vol. 2, No. 1, 10 27, 1916, 12.Google Scholar
6Bowman, J. G. Standardization of hospitals. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons, 01 15, 1918, 4.Google Scholar
7Codman Archives (Countway Library of Medicine, Boston, MA). Cartoon by physician makes stir, unidentified newspaper clipping.Google Scholar
8Codman Archives. Civilian medical inventory, 1916. Codman Hospital.Google Scholar
9Codman Archives. Codman, E. A. Hunting log 1889–1910, unpublished.Google Scholar
10Codman Archives. Codman, E. A., letter dated 05 30, 1919.Google Scholar
11Codman Archives. Insert card (printed) to MGH staff, circa 1942.Google Scholar
12Codman Archives. Letter to Carl E. Badgley, 03 5, 1940.Google Scholar
13Codman Archives. Letter: Who's important in medicine, 09 6, 1944.Google Scholar
14Codman Archives. Miscellaneous letters.Google Scholar
15Codman Archives. A meeting for the discussion of hospital efficiency, 01 6, 1915, Boston, 4.Google Scholar
16Codman Archives. Recommendation for commission, 07 29, 1918.Google Scholar
17Codman, E. A. Case-records and their value. Conference on Hospital Standardization; Joint Session of Committee on Standards,October 19–20, 1917, Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons, 1917, 3, 2427.Google Scholar
18Codman, E. A.The dividing line between medical charity and medical business. Medical Record, 1916, 89, 868–72.Google Scholar
19Codman, E. A.Money spent on hospitals is for cure of patients. Follow-up system the only way to determine value of institution's services-accounts must include death and disability which are wasted effort. The Modern Hospital, 1914, 2 (02), 8788.Google Scholar
20Codman, E. A.Observations on a series of ninety-eight consecutive operations for chronic appendicitis. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 1913, 169 (10 2), 495502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21Codman, E. A.The product of a hospital. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 1914, 18 (04), 491–96.Google Scholar
22Codman, E. A. The registry of bone sarcoma as an example of the end result idea in hospital organization. Bulletin of theAmerican College of Surgeons, 1924, 8 (01), 3438.Google Scholar
23Codman, E. A.The registry of bone sarcoma and medical human nature. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1922, 187 (08 10), 208.Google Scholar
24Codman, E. A. Report of committee on hospital standardization. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 1916, 22 (01), 119–20.Google Scholar
25Codman, E. A.A resume of the results of Dr. Harrington's service from June ito October 1, 1900 as seen in the following June or later. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1902, 146 (05 15), 515–17, and comment by F. B. Harrington, 517.Google Scholar
26Codman, E. A.The shoulder. Boston, MA: privately printed, 1934.Google Scholar
27Codman, E. A.The shoulder. Reprinted Melbourne, FL: Krieger, 1984.Google Scholar
28Codman, E. A.A study in hospital efficiency as demonstrated by the case report of the first two years of a private hospital. Boston, MA: privately printed, circa 1914.Google Scholar
29Codman, E. A.A study in hospital efficiency as demonstrated by the case report of the second two years of a private hospital. Boston, MA: privately printed, 10 19, 1915.Google Scholar
30Codman, E. A.A study in hospital efficiency as demonstrated by the case report of the first five years of a private hospital. Boston, MA: privately printed, circa 1917.Google Scholar
31Codman, E. A.Uniformity in hospital morbidity reports. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1917, 177 (08 30), 279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32Codman, E. A.A wise preliminary to the adoption of any compulsory Health Insurance Act. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1917, 176 (03 22), 435–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33Codman, E. A., & Cushing, H.Anesthesia charts of 1895 with explanatory notes. Bound Volume, circa 1920, Codman Archives.Google Scholar
34Codman, E. A.Obituary. Bulletin of the New England Surgical Society, 1941, 24, 335.Google Scholar
35Codman, E. A. M. D., FACS Deceased Resolution. Bulletin of College of Surgeons, 1941, 26 (04), 179.Google Scholar
36Corsacaden, J. A.The follow up system of the Presbyterian Hospital in the City of New York. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1916, 66, 11, 802–04.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37Curley, James M.Who's was who in America, 19511960. Chicago, IL: Marquis, Who's Who 1966.Google Scholar
38Cushing, H.The personality of a hospital. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1921, 185, 529–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39Harvey, Cushing. Dictionary of American Biography, supplement 2, New York: Charles Scribners, no date, 137.Google Scholar
40Cutler, S. J., & Latourette, H. B., A national cooperative program for the evaluation of end results in cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1959, 22, 633–46.Google ScholarPubMed
41Davis, L.Fellowship of surgeons: A history of the American College of Surgeons. Chicago, IL: ACS, 1960, 1973.Google Scholar
42Death Notice (Codman, E. A.). New England Journal of Medicine, 1940, 223, 955.Google Scholar
43Dickinson, R. L.Efficiency engineering in pelvic surgery: One and two suture operations. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 1914, 18, 559–71.Google Scholar
44Dickinson, R. L.Hospital organization as shown by charts of personnel and powers and function. Bulletin of the Taylor Society, 1917 (10), 3, 14.Google Scholar
45Dickinson, R. L.The practicality of ratings in appointment and promotion of members of the visiting staff. Medical Record, 1916, 89, 872–74.Google Scholar
46Dickinson, R. L. Rating professional men for hospital appointments for promotion and for hospital reports. Transactions of the American Hospital Association, 1915, 463–67.Google Scholar
47Dickinson, R. L.Discussion report of the conference on hospital standardization, Joint Session of Committees on Standards, Chicago, IL, 10 19–20, 1917. Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons, 1917, 3, 36.Google Scholar
48Dickinson, R. L.Standardization of surgery: An attack on the problem. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 1914, 63, 763–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49Dickinson, R. L.Dictionary of American Biography, Supple. 4. New York: Charles Scribners, 230–32.Google Scholar
50Dimmitt, R. B.A title guide to the talkies, vol. 1. New York: Scarecrow Press, 1965, 268, 917.Google Scholar
51Dorland's Illust rated Medical Dictionary, 23rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 1957, 1243, 1461.Google Scholar
52Eisenberg, H. The Connecticutt Registry – Its importance and contribution to oncology. Connecticutt Medicine, 1964, 28 (February), 119–22.Google Scholar
53Faxon, N. W.The Massachusetts General Hospital 19351955. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959.Google Scholar
54Finney, J. M. T. Letter to E. A. Codman, 12 31, 1915, Codman Archives.Google Scholar
55Flexner, A.Medical education in the United States and Canada, Carnegie Foundation, 1910, 240.Google Scholar
56Fulton, J.Harvey Cushing: A biography, Springfield, IL: C. Thomas, 1946.Google Scholar
57Fye, W. B.The development of American physiology, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1987.Google Scholar
58George, C. S.The history of management thought, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1972, Ch. 6.Google Scholar
59German, S. T., Flannery, J. T., & Barrett, H. et al. , Development of the Connecticut Tumor Registry. Connecticut Medicine, 1976, 40, 697701.Google Scholar
60Gilbreth, F. B.Hospital efficiency from the standpoint of the efficiency engineer. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1915, 172, 774–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61Gilbreth, F B.Motion study in surgery. Canadian Journal of Medical Surgery, 1916, 40, 2231.Google Scholar
62Gilbreth, F. B.Primer on scientific management. New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1912.Google Scholar
63Gilbreth, F. B.Scientific management in the hospital. Modern Hospital, 1943, 3, 321–24.Google Scholar
64Gilbreth, F. B. Jr, & Carey, E.Cheaper by the dozen. Mattituck, NY: Cromwell, 1948.Google Scholar
65Haber, S.Efficiency and uplift scientific management in the progressive era 1890–1920. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1964.Google Scholar
66Halliwell, L.Halliwell'sfilmgoer's companion, 7th ed. New York: Charles Scribners & Sons, 1980, 160, 475.Google Scholar
67Heston, J. F. Forty-five years of cancer incidence in Connecticut 1935–1979. In Heston, J. F., Kelly, J., Meigs, J. W. et al. , (eds.), Forty-five years of cancer incidence in Connecticut 1935–1979. Washington, DC: National Cancer Institute, Monograph 70, 1986, 131.Google Scholar
68Hornsby, J. A.Discussion. Report on the Conference on Hospital Standardization, Joint Session of Committees on Standards, Chicago, IL, 10 19–20, 1917. Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons, 1917, 3, 37.Google Scholar
69Hornsby, J. A.Standardization of hospitals. Transactions of the American Hospital Association, 1913, 15, 175–90.Google Scholar
70Hornsby, J. A., & Schmidt, R. E.The modern hospital: Its inspiration, its architecture, its equipment, its operation. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1913.Google Scholar
71Howard, A. A.Hospital efficiency as produced and measured by a follow-up system. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1915, 66, 1962–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72J. H., (John Homans) Ernest Amory Codman 1869–1940. New England Journal of Medicine, 1941, 224, 296–99.Google Scholar
73Juran, J. M.Upper managements' role: Making quality happen, 5th ed. 1988.Google Scholar
74Kakar, S.Frederick Taylor: A study in personality and innovation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970.Google Scholar
75Massachusetts General Hospital. Annual reports. Boston, MA: Privately printed yearly (see 1900, 1915).Google Scholar
76MacEachern, M. T.Hospital organization and management. Chicago, IL: Physicians Record Company, 1935.Google Scholar
77Meigs, J. W.The Connecticut cancer epidemiology unit. Connecticut Medicine, 1975, 39, 637–40.Google ScholarPubMed
78Moore, F. D. The quality of care. The Gallie Memorial Lecture, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, Ottawa, 01 22, 1971.Google Scholar
79Moore, F. D. Surgical biology and applied sociology, Cannon and Codman fifty years later. Harvard Medical Alumni Bulletin, 1975, January, 12–21.Google Scholar
80Neuhauser, D.Advantages of advertising by M.D.'s. New England Journal of Medicine, 1976, 294, 1240–41.Google ScholarPubMed
81Neuhauser, D.Coming of age. Chicago, IL: Pluribus Press, 1983.Google Scholar
82Neuhauser, D.Quality of medical and care and the 14 points of Edwards Deming. Health Matrix, 1988, 6 (Summer), 710.Google Scholar
83Nock, A. J. Efficiency and the high-brow: Frank Gilbreth's great plan to introduce time- study into surgery. The American Magazine, 1913, 03, 4850.Google Scholar
84O'Connor, E.The Last Hurrah. Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1956, 427.Google Scholar
85Post, M. (ed.) The Shoulder, surgical and non-surgical management, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1988.Google Scholar
86Regan, Nancy.Who's Who in America, 43rd ed. 19841985, vol 2., Chicago, IL: Marquis, Who's Who, 2697.Google Scholar
87Reverby, S. Stealing the golden eggs, Ernest Amory Codman and the science of management of medicine. Boston, MA, unpublished article presented at the 53rd meeting of the American Association for History of Medicine, Boston, MA, 05 1, 1980.Google Scholar
88Risse, G. B.Hospital life in Enlightenment Scotland. Cambridge, U.K., Cambridge University Press, 1986.Google Scholar
89Rowe, C. R. (ed.). The shoulder, New York: Churchill-Livingston, 1988. (Brown, Thorton, “Foreword”).Google ScholarPubMed
90Simmons, C. C.The follow-up system. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1977, 177, 275–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91Thornhill, T. Review of Post, M. (ed.). The shoulder, 2nd ed.New England Journal of Medicine, 1988, 319, 1613–14.Google Scholar
92Truax, R.The doctors Warren of Boston. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1968.Google Scholar
93Ward, G. G.The value and need for more attention to end results and follow-up in hospitals today. Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons, 1924, 8, 2934.Google Scholar
94Washburn, F. A.The Massachusetts General Hospital: Its development 1900–1935. Cambridge, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95Weingrod, K., & Neuhauser, D. A history of the case method of teaching. In Kovner, A., & Neuhauser, D. (eds.), Health services management: A book of cases, 3rd ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Health Administration Press, 1989.Google Scholar
96Woodward, J.To do the sick no harm: A study of the British voluntary system to 1875. London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974.Google Scholar
97Wrege, C. D. The efficient management of hospitals: pioneer work of Ernest Codman, Robert Dickinson and Frank Gilbreth 1910–1918. Proceedings Academy of Management Annual Meeting, 1980, 114–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar