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Making a spectacle of the colony: Producing and consuming Pasar Gambir in the Dutch East Indies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 April 2022

Esti Asmira
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Abstract

This article examines the first decade of Pasar Gambir as an annual week-long festival held in the Dutch East Indies in conjunction with Queen Wilhelmina's birthday. As a study of colonial spectacles, it seeks to address the dearth of scholarly literature that analyses how the Western exhibitionary complex functioned in a colonised environment. In producing Pasar Gambir, the Dutch colonisers did not adopt this exhibitionary complex in its entirety. As such, Pasar Gambir assumed the hybridised form of a jaarmarkt-tentoonstelling (fair-cum-exhibition) imbued with market-like characteristics. This reality distinguished Pasar Gambir from its metropolitan equivalents by involving the colonised not only as objectified exhibits on display, but also as active consumers and participants of the spectacle. Ultimately, this article argues that the hybridity of Pasar Gambir undercut Dutch efforts to use it as a vehicle that illustrated and vindicated their claims of benevolence and racial supremacy. Through the Malay language press’ appropriation of the spectacle to underscore the moral superiority of the colonised and the Indies Chinese’ successful boycott of Pasar Gambir in 1925, colonised communities contested the empire-building messages that the Dutch sought to convey through Pasar Gambir and inscribed their own nationalist readings and interpretations of the annual jaarmarkt-tentoonstelling instead.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 53 , Issue 1-2 , June 2022 , pp. 31 - 56
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Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore, 2022

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Footnotes

The author would like to thank Sai Siew Min, Timothy P. Barnard, and Maitrii Aung-Thwin for their guidance, input, and encouragement throughout various iterations of this article. Their support made the publication of this article—eight years after it was first written—possible. All translations from Indonesian and Dutch are mine unless otherwise indicated.

References

1 ‘De Pasar Gambir’, Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad (henceforth BN), 29 Aug. 1921; ‘De Jaarmarkt’ [The Fair], BN, 27 Aug. 1906; ‘Pasar Gambir’, Kaoem Moeda (henceforth KM), 23 Aug. 1921.

2 ‘Pasar Gambir’, BN, 19 May 1921; Verslag Nopens de Pasar-Gambir Gehouden op het Koningsplein te Weltevreden van 28 Augustus–2 September 1906 [Report concerning the Pasar Gambir held in the Koningsplein at Weltevreden from 28 Aug.–2 Sept. 1906], p. 5. The week-long 1906 Pasar Gambir was organised on a much smaller scale, with the ‘Kampong Keradjinan’ (Arts and Crafts Village) as its main exhibition.

3 Programma van den Pasar Gambir Jubileum 1921–1930 [Programme of Pasar Gambir's Jubilee 1921–1930], n.p.; Arif Zulkifli, ‘Pasar Gambir di era jajahan’ [Pasar Gambir during the colonial era], TEMPO, 15 Mar. 1999.

4 ‘De Pasar Gambir’ [The Pasar Gambir], BN, 29 Aug. 1921.

5 ‘De Pasar Gambir’, BN, 1 Sept. 1921.

6 ‘De Passar Gambir’, BN, 23 Sept. 1921.

7 Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral vistas: The expositions universelles, great exhibitions and world's fairs, 1851–1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988); Thomas Richards, The commodity culture of Victorian Britain: Advertising and spectacle, 1851–1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990); Robert W. Rydell, All the world's a fair: Visions of empire at American international expositions, 1876–1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); Bennett, Tony, ‘The exhibitionary complex’, New Formations 4 (1988): pp. 85, 92Google Scholar; Marieke Bloembergen, Colonial spectacles: The Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies at the world exhibitions, 1880–1931 (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2006), p. 14.

8 Maurizio Peleggi, Lords of things: The fashioning of the Siamese monarchy's modern image (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002), p. 144; Prakash, Gyan, ‘Science “gone native” in colonial India’, Representations 40 (1992): 172CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Coté, Joost, ‘Staging modernity: The Semarang International Exhibition, 1914’, RIMA: Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs 40, 1 (2006): 34Google Scholar.

9 Mijarto Pradaningrum, ‘Pasar Gambir puluhan tahun lalu’ [Pasar Gambir decades ago], Kompas, 29 Aug. 2009; Zulkifli, ‘Pasar Gambir di era jajahan’; Teguh Setiawan, ‘Kisah PRJ tempo dulu: Belajarlah dari Pasar Gambir’ [The story of Jakarta Fair in the past: Let's learn from Pasar Gambir], Republika, 26 June 2013.

10 Yulia Nurliani Lukito, ‘Colonial exhibition and a laboratory of modernity: Hybrid architecture at Batavia's Pasar Gambir’, Indonesia 100 (Oct. 2015): 77.

11 Ibid., p. 100.

12 ‘Pasar Gambir’, BN, 19 Aug. 1921.

13 Geertz, Clifford, ‘The bazaar economy: Information and search in peasant marketing’, American Economic Review 68, 2 (1978): 29–30Google Scholar; Ray, Rajat Kanta, ‘Asian capital in the age of European domination: The rise of the bazaar, 1800–1914’, Modern Asian Studies 29, 3 (1995): 452CrossRefGoogle Scholar; J.S. Furnivall, Netherlands India: A study of plural economy (New York: Macmillan, 1944), p. 449.

14 James T. Siegel, Fetish, recognition, revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 116–17, 131.

15 Bloembergen, Colonial spectacles, pp. 224–5, 391; Amry Vandenbosch, The Dutch East Indies: Its government, problems and politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1944), p. 64; Schmutzer, Dutch colonial policy, p. 17.

16 Christian L.M. Penders, Indonesia: Selected documents on colonialism and nationalism, 1830–1942 (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1977), p. 61.

17 Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel, Handbook of the Netherlands East-Indies: 1920 edition (Buitenzorg: Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel, 1920), p. 141.

18 Ibid., p. 142.

19 Takashi Shiraishi, An age in motion: Popular radicalism in Java 1912–1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990).

20 ‘Tien jaar Pasar Gambir’ [Ten years of Pasar Gambir], Het Nieuws van den Dag voor Nederlands-Indië (henceforth Het Nieuws), 23 Aug. 1930; Programma van den Pasar Gambir Jubileum 1921–1930, n.p.

21 1927 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe) [1927 Pasar Gambir Programme (Malay)], p. 29; ‘Pasar Gambir’, BN, 19 May 1921.

22 Simon Peter Newman, Parades and the politics of the street: Festive culture in the early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), p. 12.

23 Ibid. 1923 Pasar Gambir Programma (Hollandsch Tekst) [1923 Pasar Gambir Programme (Dutch text)], p.15; 1926 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe), p. 20; 1925 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe), p. 29; 1929 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe), n.p.; ‘De Jubileumfeesten te Batavia’ [The Jubilee celebrations in Batavia], BN, 4 Sept. 1923.

24 1924 Pasar Gambir Programma (Hollandsch Tekst), pp. 12–16; Programma van den Pasar Gambir Jubileum 1921–1930, n.p.; 1923 Pasar Gambir Programma (Hollandsch Tekst), p. 2; ‘Overzichtsteekening’ [Overview picture], Pasar Gambir Nummer van het Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad [Pasar Gambir edition of the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad, henceforth Pasar Gambir Nummer], 28 Aug. 1929; Eduard J.M. Schmutzer, Dutch colonial policy and the search for identity in Indonesia, 1920–1931 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1977), p. 17.

25 Bloembergen, Colonial spectacles, pp. 224–5, 391.

26 Ibid.; Vandenbosch, The Dutch East Indies, p. 64; Schmutzer, Dutch colonial policy, p. 17.

27 Penders, Selected documents on colonialism and nationalism, p. 64.

28 Ruppin, Dafna, ‘The emergence of a modern audience for cinema in colonial Java’, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 173, 4 (2017): 478CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 J.H. Boeke, Economics and economic policy of dual societies: As exemplified by Indonesia (New York: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1953), pp. 3–4.

30 ‘Pasar Gambir’, KM, 24 Aug. 1922; 1925 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe), pp. 19–21; 1929 Pasar Gambir Programma (Hollandsch Tekst), n.p.; 1928 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe), n.p.

31 ‘Mengoendjoengi Pasar Gambir II’ [Visiting Pasar Gambir II], Bintang Hindia (henceforth BH), 8 Sept. 1923.

32 ‘Uitslag van de padi-tentoonstelling’ [Outcome of the paddy exhibition], Het Nieuws, 29 Aug. 1924; ‘Tentoonstelling beras di Gambir’ [Rice exhibition in Gambir], Sin Po (henceforth SP), 2 Sept. 1925; ‘Pasar Gambir sebagi tempat berladjar’ [Pasar Gambir as a place to learn], SP, 27 Aug. 1930.

33 ‘Roewangan klas dalem Pasar Gambir’ [A classroom in Pasar Gambir], SP, 3 Sept. 1930; 1925 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe), pp. 16–17; 1928 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe), n.p.

34 Bloembergen, Colonial spectacles, p. 225.

35 Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal knowledge and imperial power: Race and the intimate in colonial rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), p. 24.

36 The three population groups articulated in the Netherlands East Indies Constitution of 1854 placed Europeans at the apex of the colonial hierarchy followed by the Foreign Orientals. The Inlanders or the natives occupied the lowest rung of society. As the local Indies population deemed ‘Inlanders’ as pejorative, they adopted the Sanskrit-derived term ‘Bumiputera’ (son of the land or soil) as a more acceptable terminology to collectively refer to the indigenous peoples (orang asli) of the archipelago.

37 1924 Pasar Gambir Programma (Hollandsch Tekst), p. 9; Charles A. Coppel, Studying ethnic Chinese in Indonesia (Singapore: Singapore Society of Asian Studies, 2002), pp. 140, 157.

38 Patricia Morton, Hybrid modernities: Architecture and representation at the 1931 Colonial Exposition, Paris (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), p. 119; Hoffenberg, An empire on display, p. 29; Alayna Wilburn, ‘Imperial knowledge and cultural display: Representations of colonial India in late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century London’ (MA diss., University of Kentucky, 2008), pp. 22, 33; Bennett, ‘The exhibitionary complex’, p. 92.

39 1926 Pasar Gambir Programma (Melajoe), p. 5.

40 ‘Pasar Gambir’, BN, 19 Aug. 1921.

41 Tong Tong Fair, ‘Pasar Gambir’, https://tongtongfair.nl/pasar-gambir/ (accessed 21 Sept. 2020).

42 ‘Tentoonstelling Pasar Gambir’ [Pasar Gambir Exhibition], KM, 6 Sept. 1921.

43 Hoffenberg, An empire on display, p. 28; Bloembergen, Colonial spectacles, p. 2.

44 Marieke Bloembergen, ‘Van Kampong tot Kunst? Nederlandse koloniale mensvertoningen op de wereldtentoonstellingen, 1883–1931’ [From village to art? Dutch colonial human displays at the world exhibitions, 1883–1931], in De Exotische Mens: Andere culturen als amusement (The exotic human: Other cultures as amusement), ed. Patrick Allegaert and Bert Sliggers (Tielt: Lannoo, 2009), p. 115.

45 Ibid., pp. 123–5.

46 Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination culture: Tourism, museums, and heritage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), p. 118.

47 ‘Sport di Pasar Gambir’ [Sports in Pasar Gambir], BH, 6 Sept. 1924; ‘Voetbal di Pasar Gambir’ [Football in Pasar Gambir], SP, 7 Sept. 1929.

48 Joost Coté, ‘“To see is to know”: The pedagogy of the Colonial Exhibition, Semarang, 1914’, Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education 36, 1 (2000): 364.

49 Lukito, ‘Colonial exhibition and a laboratory of modernity’, p. 100.

50 ‘Pasar Gambir’, KM, 27 Aug. 1924; ‘Ke Pasar Gambir’ [To Pasar Gambir], KM, 3 Sept. 1929; Robert W. Rydell, World of fairs: The century-of-progress expositions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 35.

51 ‘Pasar Gambir’, BN, 19 Aug. 1921.

52 ‘Ke Pasar Gambir’, KM, 3 Sept. 1929; ‘Pasar Gambir’, BH, 12 Sept. 1925.

53 Programma van den Pasar Gambir Jubileum, 1921–1930, n.p.; Pieter van Wesemael, Architecture of instruction and delight: A socio-historical analysis of world exhibitions as a didactic phenomenon (1798–1851–1970) (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2001), p. 17; Wilburn, ‘Imperial knowledge and cultural display’, p. 2.

54 ‘Pemboekaan Pasar Gambir’ [The opening of Pasar Gambir], KM, 3 Sept. 1925; ‘Pasar Gambir’, KM, 4 Sept. 1928.

55 ‘Tjinta …. di Pasar Gambir’ [Love …. in Pasar Gambir], BH, 25 Aug. 1923.

56 ‘Tjinta …. di Pasar Gambir II’, BH, 8 Sept. 1923; ‘Tjinta .… di Pasar Gambir III’, BH, 15 Sept. 1923

57 Ibid.

58 Maman S. Mahayana, Bermain dengan cerpen: Apresiasi dan kritik cerpen Indonesia [Playing with short stories: Appreciation and criticism of Indonesian short stories] (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2006), p. 15; Derks, Will, ‘“If not to anything else”: Some reflections on modern Indonesian literature’, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 152, 3 (1996): 342CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Danerek, Stefan, ‘Cerpen koran’ [Short stories in newspapers], Indonesia and the Malay World 41, 121 (2013): 419–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59 ‘Pasar Gambir’, KM, 27 Aug. 1924.

60 Benedict R. O'G. Anderson, ‘Old state, new society: Indonesia's New Order in comparative historical perspective’, Journal of Asian Studies 42, 3 (1983): 479; James R. Rush, ‘Social control and influence in nineteenth century Indonesia: Opium farms and the Chinese of Java’, Indonesia 35 (1983): 53.

61 ‘Toekang sebrot di Pasar Gambir’ [Snatch thief in Pasar Gambir], SP, 29 Aug. 1929; ‘Pasar Gambir’, BH, 12 Sept. 1925; ‘Tjopet di Pasar Gambir’ [Pickpocket in Pasar Gambir], SP, 2 Sept. 1929; ‘Kedjahatan di Pasar Gambir’ [Crimes in Pasar Gambir], SP, 27 Aug. 1930.

62 ‘Keriboetan militair di Pasar Gambir’ [Military commotion in Pasar Gambir], KM, 8 Sept. 1925; ‘Perklaian besar di Pasar Gambir’ [Big fight in Pasar Gambir], SP, 4 Sept. 1925; ‘Pendjagahan koeat di Pasar Gambir’ [Strong surveillance in Pasar Gambir], SP, 7 Sept. 1925; ‘Kembali riboet besar di Pasar Gambir’ [Returning to the big commotion in Pasar Gambir], SP, 4 Sept. 1925.

63 ‘Itoe perkelahian Pada Pasar Gambir’ [The fight in Pasar Gambir], KM, 14 Sept. 1928; ‘Kariboetan di Pasar Gambir’ [Commotion in Pasar Gambir], SP, 4 Sept. 1930.

64 Coté, ‘To see is to know’, p. 364; Coté, ‘Staging modernity’, p. 34.

65 ‘Bebrapa prampoean koelit poeti saparo telandjang di Pasar Gambir’ [Several white women were half-naked in Pasar Gambir], SP, 4 Sept. 1925.

66 ‘Orang Tionghoa diperlakoeken koerang adjar di Pasar Gambir’ [Ethnic Chinese treated disrespectfully in Pasar Gambir], SP, 3 Sept. 1925.

67 ‘Schandaal di Pasar Gambir’ [Scandal in Pasar Gambir], KM, 10 Sept. 1923.

68 Yulia Nurliani Lukito, Exhibiting modernity and Indonesian vernacular architecture: Hybrid architecture at Pasar Gambir of Batavia, the 1931 Paris International Colonial Exhibition and Taman Mini Indah (Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 2016), p. 48; Lukito, ‘Colonial exhibition and a laboratory of modernity’, p. 100.

69 Ibid., p. 101.

70 Coté, ‘To see is to know’, p. 360; Coté, ‘Staging modernity’, p. 2.

71 While the colonisers used the category of Vreemde Oosterlingen to refer mainly to local Chinese, it also included Arabs and Japanese residents. Within colonial Java, the ethnic Chinese were generally understood to encompass two cultural subgroups: the more acculturated peranakan and the Chinese-speaking, China-oriented totok. The 1920s was also a period of growing tensions between the two subgroups as the peranakan elite increasingly deviated from the pan-Chinese movement and tried to orient their fellow peranakan toward the Dutch East Indies. In this article, I use the terms ‘Vreemde Oosterlingen’, ‘local Chinese’, and ‘Indies Chinese’ interchangeably to collectively refer to both peranakan and totok in Java.

72 ‘De Pasar Gambir, 1921–1927’, Pasar Gambir Nummer, 27 Aug. 1927; ‘Gambir Park lebih rame dari Pasar Gambir’ [Gambir Park was more crowded than Pasar Gambir], SP, 29 Aug. 1925; Leo Suryadinata, Pribumi Indonesians, the Chinese minority and China: A study of perceptions and policies (Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2005), p. 44; ‘Pasar Gambir saparo diboycot?’ [Pasar Gambir is half boycotted?], SP, 2 Sept. 1925.

73 Ahmat B. Adam, The vernacular press and the emergence of modern Indonesian consciousness (1855–1913) (Ithaca, NY: SEAP Publications, Cornell University, 1995), p. 189; Suryadinata, Pribumi Indonesians, p. 44; Ang Yan Goan, Memoar Ang Yan Goan 1894–1984: Tokoh pers yang peduli pembangunan bangsa [The memoir of Ang Yan Goan 1894–1985: A press figure who cared about nation building], trans. Tan Beng Hok (Jakarta: Yayasan Nabil/Hasta Mitra, 2009), p. 48.

74 ‘Boemipoetra dan Tionghoa’, SP, 17 Aug. 1925.

75 ‘Siapa jang salah?’ [Who is at fault?], SP, 17 July 1925; ‘Kariboetan di Shanghai’ [The turmoil in Shanghai], SP, 4 June 1925; ‘Apa Tiongkok bisa dikepoeng lagi?’ [Can China be placed under siege again?], SP, 6 June 1925; ‘Pers Blanda dan itoe kariboetan di Shanghai’ [The Dutch press and the turmoil in Shanghai], SP, 8 June 1925.

76 Jeffrey N. Wasserstom, Student protests in twentieth-century China: The view from Shanghai (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), p. 122; Richard W. Rigby, The May 30 Movement: Events and themes (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1980), pp. 23, 36, 184.

77 ‘Itoe kariboetan di Shanghai’ [The turmoil in Shanghai], SP, 6 June 1925; ‘Gerakan boycott’ [Boycott movement], SP, 11 July 1925; ‘Pengrasaän anti-Inggris di Djokja’ [Anti-British sentiments in Yogyakarta], SP, 24 Aug. 1925; ‘Boycot keras’ [Intense boycott], SP, 27 Aug. 1925.

78 ‘Toendjangan dari orang Rus’ [Aid from Russians], SP, 15 June 1925; ‘Bantoe bangsa Tionghoa di Shanghai’ [Help the Chinese in Shanghai], SP, 19 June 1925; ‘Boeat Fonds Shanghai’, SP, 29 June 1925; ‘Fonds Shanghai’, SP, 29 June 1925; ‘Fonds Shanghai’, SP, 6 July 1925; ‘Fonds Shanghai’, SP, 14 July 1925; ‘Bantoean boeat Shanghai’ [Help for Shanghai], SP, 22 June 1925.

79 ‘Politie terhadap pada fonds Shanghai’ [The police on Shanghai funds], SP, 18 July 1925; ‘Siapa jang salah?’, SP, 17 July 1925.

80 ‘Pasar Gambir saparo diboycot?’, SP, 2 Sept. 1925.

81 ‘Pasar Gambir sepi!’ [Pasar Gambir is empty and quiet!], SP, 29 Aug. 1925; ‘Gambir Park lebih rame dari Pasar Gambir’, SP, 29 Aug. 1925; ‘Pasar Gambir saparo diboycot?’, SP, 2 Sept. 1925.

82 ‘De Pasar Gambir, 1921–1927’, Pasar Gambir Nummer, 27 Aug. 1927; ‘Het Einde van den Pasar Gambir’ [The end of Pasar Gambir], Het Nieuws, 10 Sept. 1929. From 1928 onwards, the Comité extended Pasar Gambir by two days, resulting in a sharp increase in visitor numbers between 1927 and 1928.

83 Dutch newspapers did not publish the racial breakdown of visitors who attended Pasar Gambir in 1930; ‘De Pasar Gambir, 1921–1927’, Pasar Gambir Nummer, 27 Aug. 1927.

84 ‘Pemboekahan Pasar Gambir’ [The opening of Pasar Gambir], SP, 25 Aug. 1930; ‘De Xe Pasar Gambir Gesloten’ [The tenth Pasar Gambir closed], BN, 8 Sept. 1930; ‘Loods-loods Pasar Gambir tida lakoe?’ [Pasar Gambir stands not saleable?], SP, 12 Aug. 1925; ‘Pasar Gambir’, BH, 12 Sept. 1925.

85 ‘Pasar Gambir’, BH, 12 Sept. 1925.

86 ‘De Pasar Gambir. 1921–1927’, Pasar Gambir Nummer, 27 Aug. 1927.

87 Stoler, Carnal knowledge, p. 24; Bennett, ‘The exhibitionary complex’, p. 74.

88 Neil Fligstein and Luke Dauter, ‘The sociology of markets’, Annual Review of Sociology 33 (2007): 113.

89 Roger Friedland and A.F. Robertson, ‘Beyond the marketplace’, in Beyond the marketplace: Rethinking economy and society, ed. Roger Friedland and A.F. Robertson (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990), p. 7; Lie, John, ‘Sociology of markets’, Annual Review of Sociology 23 (1997): 342CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 Shiraishi, An age in motion, p. 46.

91 Orchard, Dorothy J., ‘China's use of the boycott as a political weapon’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 152 (1930): 253–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Calavita, Kitty, ‘The paradoxes of race, class, identity, and “passing”: Enforcing the Chinese Exclusion Acts, 1882–1910’, Law and Social Inquiry 25, 1 (2000): 1, 35CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rigby, The May 30 Movement, p. 44.

92 James R. Rush, Opium to Java: Revenue farming and Chinese enterprise in colonial Indonesia, 1860–1910 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), pp. 88, 96–7, 106, 248; Jan Luiten van Zanden and Daan Marks, An economic history of Indonesia: 1800–2010 (New York: Routledge, 2013), p. 104.

93 ‘Pasar Gambir’, BH, 12 Sept. 1925; Adam, The Vernacular Press, p. 100.

94 Bennett, ‘The exhibitionary complex’, pp. 79–80.

95 Wilburn, ‘Imperial knowledge’, p. 2.