No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
JUVENILE INFORMERS: IS IT APPROPRIATE TO USE CHILDREN AS COVERT HUMAN INTELLIGENCE SOURCES?
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 25 September 2020
Abstract
Recently, attention has been given to the question as to whether children should be used as covert human intelligence sources (CHIS), aka informers. Being a CHIS is a risky endeavour, particularly when the person is deployed against serious crime, for example, gang violence. Questions arise over the propriety of using adolescents as CHIS, and whether the regulation of covert sources serves to minimise the risk to them. This article considers the regulatory environment. It concludes that the use of juveniles as CHIS can be justified, but that additional safeguards must be put in place to ensure their safety.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © Cambridge Law Journal and Contributors 2020
Footnotes
*
Professor of Criminal Law and Justice, Lancaster University. I would like to thank Professor David Campbell and Samantha Magor for their comments on this article. All errors are, of course, my own.
References
1 Secondary Legislation Scrutiny Committee, 35th Report of Session 2017–19 (HL Paper 168) 4.
2 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 435 (16 October 2018).
3 R. (Just for Kids Law) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2019] EWHC 1772 (Admin), [2019] 4 W.L.R. 97.
4 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 443 (16 October 2018).
5 Balsdon, S., Improving the Management of Juvenile Informants (London 1996), 12Google Scholar.
6 Explanatory Memorandum to the Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) (Amendment) Order 2018, para. 7.2, available at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2018/715/pdfs/uksiem_20180715_en_001.pdf (last accessed 5 August 2020).
7 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 26(8).
8 Billingsley, R., “Editor's Introduction” in Billingsley, R. (ed.), Covert Human Intelligence Sources: The “Unlovely” Face of Police Work (Hook 2009), xiiiGoogle Scholar.
9 J. Lennon, “A Defence Perspective” in Billingsley, Covert Human Intelligence Sources, 32.
10 Home Office, Covert Human Intelligence Sources: Revised Code of Practice (2018), 11.
11 Case, S., Youth Justice: A Critical Introduction (Abingdon 2018), 32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
12 Ministry of Justice, Youth Justice Statistics 2017/18 (2019), 5.
13 Densley, J.A. and Stevens, A., “‘We'll Show You Gang’: The Subterranean Structuration of Gang Life in London” (2015) 15 Criminology & Criminal Justice 102CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
14 Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 14.
15 Williams, A.G. and Finlay, F., “County Lines: How Gang Crime Is Affecting Our Young People” (2019) 104 Archives of Disease in Childhood 730Google Scholar.
16 Dennis, A.L., “Collateral Damage – Juvenile Snitches in America's Wars on Drugs, Crime, and Gangs” (2009) 46 Am.Crim.L.Rev. 1145Google Scholar, 1149.
17 Zuckerman, A.A.S., “Public Interest Immunity: A Matter of Prime Judicial Responsibility” (1994) 57 M.L.R. 703CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
18 Sir Adrian was replaced by Sir Brian Leveson, the former President of the Queen's Bench Division, in October 2019.
19 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 447 (16 October 2018).
20 Explanatory Memorandum, 1.
21 Investigatory Powers Commissioner's Office, Annual Report 2017 (HC 1780, 2018), 15.
22 Neyroud, P. and Beckley, A., “Regulating Informers” in Billingsley, R., Nemitz, T. and Bean, P. (eds.), Informers: Policing, Policy, Practice (Abingdon 2001), 164Google Scholar.
23 R. Billingsley, “Introduction” in Billingsley et al., Informers, 11.
24 A rare public mention of these standards is to be found in Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 5.
25 Most commonly now exercised through the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, s. 78.
26 Zuckerman, “Public Interest Immunity”, 720.
27 See, most notably, Malone v United Kingdom (1984) 7 E.H.R.R. 14 and Halford v United Kingdom (1997) 24 E.H.R.R. 523.
28 Human Rights Act 1998, s. 6(1).
29 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 29(1).
30 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 2.7
31 Ibid., at para. 2.8.
32 Neyroud and Beckley, “Regulating Informers”, 167.
33 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 29(5)(a).
34 Ibid., s. 29(5)(b).
35 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Directed Surveillance and Covert Human Intelligence Sources) Order 2003, SI 2003/3171, art. 4 and pt. I of the Schedule.
36 J. Potts, “Debriefing: A New Way Forward?” in Billingsley, Covert Human Intelligence Sources, 139.
37 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 29(2)(a) when read in conjunction with s. 29(3)(b).
38 Ibid., s. 29(2)(b).
39 Ibid., s. 29(2)(c) when read in conjunction with s. 29(5).
40 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793.
41 Ibid., art. 3.
42 Ibid., art. 4.
43 Ibid., art. 5.
44 A.A. Gillespie, “Juvenile Informers” in Billingsley, Covert Human Intelligence Sources, 112, discusses the historical position of the legislation.
45 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 6.
46 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles)(Amendment) Order 2018, SI 2018/715.
47 Ibid., art. 3.
48 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 437 (16 October 2018).
49 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 441 (16 October 2018).
50 Gillespie, A.A. and Clark, D., “Using Juvenile Test Purchasers” (2002) 7 J.Civ.Lib. 3Google Scholar. The Licensing Act 2003, s. 154(2) also arguably establishes an alternative basis for the legality of using juvenile CHIS in such operations.
51 R. Billingsley, “Informers’ Careers: Motivations and Change” in Billingsley et al., Informers.
52 M. Dodge, “Juvenile Police Informants: Friendship, Persuasion, and Pretense” (2006) 4 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 234, 240.
53 Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 16.
54 Dennis, “Collateral Damage”, 1171.
55 D.G. Osther, “Juvenile Informants–A Necessary Evil” (1999) 39 Washburn L.J. 106, 114.
56 Case, Youth Justice, 154.
57 Maguire, M. and John, T., “Covert and Deceptive Policing in England and Wales: Issues in Regulation and Practice” (1996) 4 Eur.J.CrimeCr.L.Cr.J. 316, 317, 320Google Scholar.
58 Dennis, “Collateral Damage”, 1154.
59 Dodge, “Juvenile Police Informants”, 240.
60 K. Hyland, “Assisting Offenders” in Billingsley, Covert Human Intelligence Sources.
61 Dennis, “Collateral Damage”, 1155.
62 Dunnighan, C. and Norris, C., “A Risky Business: The Recruitment and Running of Informers by English Police Officers” (1996) 19 Police Studies 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
63 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 446 (16 October 2018).
64 Letter from Baroness Williams of Trafford to Lord Paddick, 25 October 2018 (obtained by the author through a freedom-of-information request).
65 J. Bukley, “Managing Information from the Public” in Billingsley, Covert Human Intelligence Sources, 103.
66 Children Act 1989, s. 2(2).
67 Adoption and Children Act 2002, s. 46(2).
68 Children Act 1989, s. 8(1) when read in conjunction with s. 12(2).
69 Children Act 1989, s. 4A.
70 R. (Just for Kids Law) v Secretary of State [2019] EWHC 1772 (Admin), [2019] 4 W.L.R. 97, at [87].
71 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 5(c).
72 R. (Just for Kids Law) v Secretary of State [2019] EWHC 1772 (Admin), at [87].
73 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 438 (16 October 2018).
74 Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 15.
75 An Informer v A Chief Constable [2012] EWCA Civ 197, [2013] Q.B. 579, at [61]–[62].
76 R. Rosenfeld, B.A. Jacobs and R. Wright, “Snitching and the Code of the Street” (2003) 43 Brit.J.Criminol. 291, 306.
77 Hewitt, S., Snitch! A History of the Modern Intelligence Informer (London 2010), 10Google Scholar.
78 Billingsley, R., “Duty of Care for Informers” (2005) 78 The Police Journal 209CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
79 Dennis, “Collateral Damage”, 1152; Dodge, “Juvenile Police Informants”, 236.
80 Densley, J.A., “It's Gang Life, But Not as We Know It: The Evolution of Gang Business” (2014) 60 Crime & Delinq. 517, 530CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
81 J. Spicer, “‘That's Their Brand, Their Business’: How Police Officers are Interpreting County Lines” (2019) 29 Policing and Society 873.
82 Williams and Finlay, “County Lines”, 731.
83 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 28(5)(e).
84 Dodge, “Juvenile Police Informants”, 238.
85 Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 13 (reporting what an informant handler told him).
86 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 5(b).
87 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 26(5)(a).
88 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 5.
89 Gillespie, “Juvenile Informers”, 118.
90 For a discussion, see P. Bean, “Informers and Witness Protection Schemes” in Billingsley et al., Informers.
91 Gillespie, “Juvenile Informers”, 119.
92 Sarma, K., “Informers and the Battle against Republican Terrorism: A Review of 30 Years of Conflict” (2005) 6 Police Practice and Research 165, 167CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
93 Dennis, “Collateral Damage”, 1148.
94 Children Act 2004, s. 11.
95 R. (Just for Kids Law) v Secretary of State [2019] EWHC 1772 (Admin), [2019] 4 W.L.R. 97, at [58].
96 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 5.
97 Glasser, S., “Looking Out for the Little Guy: Protecting Child Informants and Witnesses” (2018) 26 J.L.& Pol'y 677, 699Google Scholar.
98 R. (Just for Kids Law) v Secretary of State [2019] EWHC 1772 (Admin), at [82].
99 Ibid., at [83].
100 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 467 (16 October 2018).
101 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 445 (16 October 2018).
102 Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority [1986] A.C. 112.
103 Re D (A Child) [2019] UKSC 42, [2019] 1 W.L.R. 5403.
104 Ibid., at [2].
105 Ibid., at [21]. Gillick arguably being the most explicit modern pronouncement of this.
106 Ibid., at [74].
107 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 5.8.
108 Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 29.
109 Dennis, “Collateral Damage”, 1174.
110 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 3.
111 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 445 (16 October 2018).
112 R. (Just for Kids Law) v Secretary of State [2019] EWHC 1772 (Admin), at [72].
113 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, s. 58. In a similar way to under section 58, the police could refuse a particular appropriate officer where a senior officer believes that it would compromise the investigation.
114 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 4(3).
115 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) (Amendment) Order 2018, SI 2018/715, art. 2(2).
116 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 4.3.
117 Home Office, Code of Practice (Code C) (2018), para. 1.7.
118 HL Deb. vol. 792 col. 129GC (18 October 2018).
119 Crime and Disorder Act 1998, s. 34(4).
120 See https://www.appropriateadult.org.uk (last accessed 29 September 2019).
121 Glasser, “The Little Guy”, 697.
122 R. (Just for Kids Law) v Secretary of State [2019] EWHC 1772 (Admin), at [64].
123 Code of Practice (Code C), para. 1.7A.
124 Crime and Disorder Act 1998, s. 34(4)(a).
125 Kemp, V., Pleasence, P. and Balmer, N.J., “Children, Young People and Requests for Police Station Legal Advice: 25 Years on from PACE” (2011) 11 Y.J. 28, 38Google Scholar.
126 Pierpoint, H., “How Appropriate are Volunteers as ‘Appropriate Adults’ for Young Suspects? The ‘Appropriate Adult’ System and Human Rights” (2000) 22 The Journal of Social Welfare & Family Law 383, 387CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
127 Medford, S., Gudjonsson, G.H. and Pearse, J., “The Efficacy of the Appropriate Adult Safeguard During Police Interviewing” (2003) 8 Legal and Criminological Psychology 253, 262CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
128 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 26(3).
129 Ibid., s. 36.
130 Investigatory Powers Act 2016, s. 229(3)(e).
131 Ibid., s. 227(2).
132 Ibid., s. 227(4). Limited reasons for dismissal for cause exist in section 227(5) but these broadly concern bankruptcy, disqualification from serving as a director or where a sentence of imprisonment has been imposed.
133 Annual Report of the Chief Surveillance Commissioner for 2016–2017 (HC 299), 2.
134 Investigatory Powers Act 2016, s. 234.
135 Ibid., s. 234(6).
136 Letter from Sir Adrian Fulford to Harriet Harman MP dated 24 August 2018, available at https://ipco.org.uk/docs/IPCO's%20letter%20to%20Harriet%20Harman%20MP%20(24-08-18).PDF) (last accessed 4 October 2019).
137 California Penal Code, s. 701.5(b).
138 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 441 (16 October 2018).
139 Ibid.
140 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 449 (16 October 2018).
141 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 32A, inserted by Protection of Freedoms Act 2012, s. 38(1).
142 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Covert Human Intelligence Sources: Relevant Sources) Order 2013, SI 2013/2788.
143 Ibid., art. 4(1) when read in conjunction with art. 2.
144 See e.g. “Undercover Police Had Children with Activists”, The Guardian, 20 January 2012.
145 This is although the long-term authorisation (beyond 12 months) requires the approval of a judicial commissioner, and not just a notification (Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Covert Human Intelligence Sources: Relevant Sources) Order 2013, SI 2013/2788, art. 3).
146 Lord Judge, “Annual Report of the Chief Surveillance Commissioner 2016–2017” (HC 299, 2017), 8.
147 See e.g. Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 36. The extent to which it was truly urgent will be specifically considered by the judicial commissioner.
148 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 6.
149 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 5.32.
150 A failure to do so would lead to adverse comment in a report and would also be actionable in the Investigatory Powers Tribunal.
151 Investigatory Powers Commissioner's Office, Annual Report 2017 (HC 1780, 2018), 15.
152 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 6 as amended.
153 See e.g. Bigaeva v Greece (Application no. 26713/05) and Bărbulescu v Romania (Application no. 61496/08), at [70].
154 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 6.
155 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles)(Amendment) Order 2018, SI 2018/715, art. 2(3).
156 Secondary Legislation Scrutiny Committee, Draft Investigatory Powers (HL 168, 2017–19), 2.
157 Letter from Baroness Williams of Trafford, Minister of State, to Lord Haskel dated 30 July 2018 (obtained by the author through a freedom of information request).
158 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, ss. 43(6), 43(7).
159 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 8.9.
160 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 436 (16 October 2018).
161 Letter from Baroness Williams, Minister of State, to Lord Paddick dated 25 October 2018 (obtained by the author through a freedom-of-information request).
162 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 436 (16 October 2018).
163 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 29(4).
164 As it is with intrusive surveillance: Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 35(1).
165 D. Lowe, “Handling Informers” in J.A. Eterno and C. Roberson (eds.), The Detective's Handbook (Abingdon 2015), 200.
166 Dunnighan and Norris, “A Risky Business”.
167 Ransom, C.J., “Does the End Justify the Means – Use of Juveniles as Government Informants, Helpful to Society While Harmful to the Child” (1999) 20 J.Juv.L. 108Google Scholar.