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⁵ The internal dimension of oppression is available through one of the obsolete meanings of the word. Many women argue – in the face of considerable resistance – that rape is a form of oppression used by males against females. As the Oxford English Dictionary tells us, one of the oldest meanings of the verb ‘to oppress’ is ‘to rape’.

⁶ On the internalization of stereotype, see, for example, Deaux, Kay, The Behavior of Women and Men (Monterey, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1976)Google Scholar; Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1966)Google Scholar; Hacker, Helen Meyer, ‘Women as a Minority Group’, Social Forces, xxx (1951), 60–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kardiner, Abram and Ovesey, Lionel, The Mark of Oppression: Explorations in the Personality of the American Negro (Cleveland, Ohio: World, 1951)Google Scholar; and Allport, Gordon W., The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954).Google Scholar

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¹⁰ For an excellent example of this, see Hoffman, Lois Wladis, ‘Fear of Success in 1965 and 1974: A Follow-Up Study’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, XLV (1977), 310–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Goldberg, Philip A., ‘Are Women Prejudiced against Women?’, Transaction, v (1968), 28–30Google Scholar and Pheterson, Gail, Keisler, Sara and Goldberg, Philip, ‘Evaluation of the Performance of Women as a Function of Their Sex, Achievement Level, and Personal History’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, xix (1971), 114–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁷ For example, although more men than women commit suicide, women outnumber men in attempts by four to one. For a review of this perspective on female psychological disorders see Marecek, Jeanne, ‘Psychological Disorders in Women: Indices of Role Strain’Google Scholar, in Frieze, Kene H. et al. , Women and Sex Roles: A Social Psychological Perspective (New York: Norton, 1978), pp. 255–76.Google Scholar

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¹⁹ The following is a necessarily scant outline of part of Wollstonecraft's observations on the effects of oppression. Most of her life's work was devoted to this theme and obviously cannot be summarized adequately in a few pages. Moreover, she reserved some important parts of her theory and observations for a volume to follow the Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Baltimore: Penguin, 1975)Google Scholar. This volume never appeared, probably because she died as a result of childbirth five years later at the age of thirty-eight. For more on Wollstonecraft's life and work, see Sapiro, Virginia, ‘Feminist Studies and the Discipline: A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft’, Michigan Papers in Women's Studies, i (1974), 178–200Google Scholar and Tomalin, Claire, The Life and Death of Mary Wollstonecraft (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovitch, 1974)Google Scholar. The latest collection of her major works is found in Todd, Janet M., ed., A Wollstonecraft Anthology (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977).Google Scholar

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²¹ ‘Madness is only the absence of reason… the ruling angel leaving its seat, wild anarchy ensues’, Wollstonecraft, Mary, A Vindication of the Rights of Men (Gainesville: Scholar's Facsimile, 1960), p. 64Google Scholar. ‘It is a proverbial observation, that a very thin partition divides wit and madness’, Wollstonecraft, , A Vindication of the Rights of Men, p. 64.Google Scholar

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²⁴ It is important to note that excessive present-orientation and the corrollaries Wollstonecraft draws are integral parts of the stereotypes assigned to many Third World colonial populations as well as a number of minority groups in the United States.

²⁵ Wollstonecraft, , A Vindication of the Rights of Men, p. 92.Google Scholar

²⁶ For example, Searing, Donald and Stern, Alan, ‘The Stratification Beliefs of British and American Adolescents’, British Journal of Political Science, vi (1976), 177–203.Google Scholar

²⁷ For accessible discussions of the utility of game theory and game studies, see Kramer, Gerald H. and Hertzberg, Joseph, ‘Formal Theory’, in Greenstein, Fred I. and Polsby, Nelson, eds., Handbook of Political Science, Vol. VII (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), pp. 351–403Google Scholar, and Schlenker, Barry R. and Bonoma, Thomas V., ‘Fun and Games: The Validity of Games for the Study of Conflict’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, xxii (1978), 7–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁸ For a typical sentiment, ‘Finally, it is heartening to note, contrary to the suggestions… that ‘chivalry is dead’, that being paired with a female immediately predisposed the Canadian males to behave in a co-operative manner. Traditional sex roles still have some effect’, Carment, D. W., ‘Effects of Sex Role in a Maximizing Difference Game’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, xviii (1974), 461–72, p. 471 (italics added).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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³¹ Riker, and Zavoina, , ‘Rational Behavior in Politics’, p. 57.Google Scholar

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³³ All interpretations of the results of these studies are mine unless otherwise indicated. There is one caveat to bear in mind in attempting to collate, discuss, and read experimental game literature. These studies together constitute perhaps the clearest example of ‘normal science’ in the literature of social science. There are scores of studies relating to the points discussed here; most arc largely replications of previous studies, performed within the rubric of ‘game theory’. However, each differs at least slightly from each of the others. The pay-off matrices, sex of experimenter, introductory stimulus, and any number of other factors are unique to the individual study. Thus, complete comparability is not possible. Moreover, for those who have not sampled the literature on experimental game studies, it is most difficult to discuss it in clear prose free from jargon. I have attempted to write in English wherever possible.

³⁴ For a brief explanation of Prisoner's Dilemma Games see Appendix.

³⁵ See Bedell, Jeffrey and Sistrunk, Frank, ‘Power, Opportunity Losses, and Sex in a Mixed-Motive Game’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, xxv (1973), 219–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bixenstine, V. Edwin, Chambers, Norman, and Wilson, Kellog V., ‘Effect of Assymetry in Payoff Behavior in a Two-Person, Non-Zero Sum Game’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, viii (1964), 151–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Carment, , ‘Effects of Sex Role in a Maximizing Difference Game’Google Scholar; Kahn, Arnold, Hottes, Joe and Davis, William L., ‘Cooperation and Optimal Responding in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game: Effects of Sex and Physical Attractiveness’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, XVII (1971), 267–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Komorita, S. S., ‘Cooperative Choice in a Prisoner's Dilemma Game’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, xxi (1965), 741–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mack, David, Auburn, Paula and Knight, George P., ‘Sex Role, Identification, and Behavior in a Reiterated Prisoner's Dilemma Game’, Psychonomic Science, xxiv (1971), 280–1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marwell, G., Schmitt, D. and Shotola, R., ‘Sex Differences in a Cooperative Task’, Behavioral Science, xiv (1970), 184–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Oskamp, Stuart and Perlman, Daniel, ‘Factors Affecting Cooperation in a Prisoner's Dilemma Game’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, ix (1965), 359–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rapoport, Anatol and Chammah, Albert, ‘Sex Differences in Factors Contributing to the Level of Cooperation in Prisoner's Dilemma Game’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11 (1965), 831–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Steele, M. and Tedeschi, J. T., ‘Matrix Indices and Strategy Choices in Mixed-Motive Games’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, xi (1967), 189–205.Google Scholar

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³⁷ Bixenstine, et al. , ‘Effect of Assymetry in Payoff Behavior’, p. 157Google Scholar. As we shall see below, women are more forgiving if the opponent is male.

³⁸ Mack, et al. , ‘Sex Role, Identification, and Behavior’, p. 201.Google Scholar

³⁹ For other examples of ‘personalism’ in bargaining and exchange within stratified systems see Scott, , The Moral Economy of the PeasantGoogle Scholar and Genovese, Eugene D., Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Pantheon, 1974).Google Scholar

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⁸⁷ ‘Some will object, that a comparison cannot fairly be made between the government of the male sex and the forms of unjust power which I have adduced in illustration of it, since these are arbitrary, and the effect of mere usurpation, while it on the contrary is natural. But was there ever any domination which did not appear natural to those who possessed it?’ Mill, John Stuart, ‘The Subjection of Women’, in Rossi, Alice, ed., Essays in Sex Equality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), p. 147.Google Scholar

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