Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-75dct Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-25T08:41:22.937Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Spread of Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

J. Desmond Clark
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

After the end of the Pleistocene, sub-Saharan Africa seems to have been more receptive of than contributory to cultural progress in the Old World as a whole. By that time favourable localities in the subcontinent—the margins of lakes and watercourses, the sea coasts, the peripheral regions of the equatorial forest—were sometimes supporting nearly, or entirely, sedentary communities of hunting-collecting peoples who were enabled to live in this way due to the permanent presence of one or more staple sources of food: freshwater fish, water animals and plants, and sea foods; and forest foods (the Dioscoreas, Elaeis guineensis, and other oil-bearing plants), either perennial or capable of being stored. Evidence of such occupation is seen in the midden accumulations in both cave and open sites at this time. Populations could thus become more concentrated and an increase in density may be inferred, the limiting factor being the maximum that any one environment could support by intensified collecting methods (fig. I).

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 3 , Issue 2 , July 1962 , pp. 211 - 228
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1962

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Clark, J. D., ‘From Food Collecting to Incipient Urbanization in Africa South of the Sahara’. In Braidwood, R. J., Courses Toγards Urban Life (1962), Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, no. 32. In press.Google Scholar

2 See n. I above.Google Scholar

3 Arkell, A. J., ‘Khartoum's Part in the Development of the Neolithic’, Kush (1957), v, 8–12.Google Scholar

4a Lhote, H. Personal communication.Google Scholar

4b Mori, F., Arte preiltorica del Sahara Libico (De Lucca, Rome, 1960).Google Scholar

5 Cole, S., ‘The Neolithic Revolution’, British Museum (Natural History) (London, 1959), 11.Google Scholar

6 Monod, T., and Mauny, R., ‘Découverte de nouveaux instruments en os dans l'Ouest Africain’. In Clark, J. D., and Sole, S., Proceedings of the 3rd Pan-African Congress on Prehistory, Livingstone, 1955 (Chatto and Windus, London, 1957), 242–7.Google Scholar

7 Vaufrey, R., ‘Le Neolithique paratumbien: une civilisation agricole primitive du Soudan’, La Revue Scientifique (1947), no. 3, 267, 205–32.Google Scholar

8a Davies, O., ‘Neolithic cultures from Ghana’, C.R. 4th Pan-African Congress, Leopoldville, 1959 (1962). In press.Google Scholar

8b Shaw, C. T., ‘Report on excavations carried out in the cave known as “Bosumpra” at Abetifi, Gold Coast Colony’, Proc. Prehist. Soc. (1944), X, 1–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9a Fagg, B. E. B., ‘An outline of the Stone Age of the Plateau Minesfield’, Proc. Int. West African Conference (1949).Google Scholar

9b Willett, F., ‘Investigations at Old Oyo, 1956–7: An Interim Report’, J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria (1960), II (I), 59–77.Google Scholar

10 Mortelmans, G., ‘La préhistoire du Congo Belge’, Revue de l'Université de Bruxelles (1957), 2–3.Google Scholar

11 See n. 7 above.Google Scholar

12 Deevey, S. E., et al. , ‘Yale natural radiocarbon measurements III’, Science (1957), CXXVI, 908–19.Google Scholar

13 Arkell, A. J., ‘Four occupation sites at Agordat’, Kush (1954), II, 33–62.Google Scholar

14 Clark, J. D., The prehistoric cultures of the Horn of Africa (Cambridge University Press, London, 1954).Google Scholar

15a Leakey, L. S. B., The Stone Age Cultures of Kenya Colony (Cambridge University Press, London, 1931).Google Scholar

15b Leakey, M. D., ‘Report on the excavations at Hyrax Hill, Nakuru, Kenya Colony’, Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa (1945), XXX, IV, 271–409.Google Scholar

15c Leakey, M. D., and Leakey, L. S. B., Excavations at the Njoro river cave (Oxford University Press, London, 1950).Google Scholar

16 Bailloud, G., ‘La Préhistoire de l'Ethiopie’. In Mer rouge—Afrique orientale. Cahiers de l'Afrique et de l'Asie (Paris, 1959), 15–43.Google Scholar

17 See n. 14 above, 295–315.Google Scholar

18 Simoons, F., ‘Some questions on the economic prehistory of Ethiopia’. Paper read at the Third Conference on African History and Archaeology, School of Oriental and African Studies, July 1961, University of London (1961).Google Scholar

19 Leakey, L. S. B., Annual Report of the Coryndon Museum (Nairobi, 1956).Google Scholar

20 Deevey, E. S., ‘Yale natural radiocarbon measurements, V’, Amer. Journ. of Science (1960), Radiocarbon Supplement II, 58.Google Scholar

21 Arkell, A. J., A History of the Sudan (Athlone Press, London, 1961) 46–54.Google Scholar

22 Monod, Th., ‘Sur quelques Monuments lithiques du Sahara Occidental’, Actas y Memorias de la Sociedad Espanola de Antropologia, Etnografia y Prehistoria (Madrid, 1948), XXIII, nos. 1–4, 12–35.Google Scholar

23a Cole, S., The Prehistory of East Africa (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1954), 225–46.Google Scholar

23b Clark, J. D., The Prehistory of Southern Africa (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1959), 289–93.Google Scholar

24 Briggs, L. C., ‘The living races of the Sahara Desert’, Peabody Museum Papers (Cambridge, Mass., 1958), XXVIII, no. 2, 12–15.Google Scholar

25 Leakey, L. S. B., The Stone Age Races of Kenya (Oxford University Press, London, 1935).Google Scholar

26 Tobias, P. V., ‘New evidence and new views on the evolution of man in Africa’, South African Journal of Science (1961), LVII, no. 2, 25–38.Google Scholar

27 Tobias, P. V., ‘Bushman Hunter-gatherers: A Study in Human Ecology’. In Ecology in South Africa (1960). In press.Google Scholar

28 Portères, R.M, ‘Vieilles agricultures de l'Afrique intertropicale’, L'Agronomie Tropicale (1950), no. 5, 489–507.Google Scholar

29 Murdock, G. P., Africa; its peoples and their culture history (McGraw Hill, New York, 1959).Google Scholar

30 Schell, R., Plantes aliinentires et vie agricole de l'Afrique noire (La Rose, Paris, 1957).Google Scholar

31 Fagan, B. M., ‘Radio-carbon dates for sub-Saharan Africa I’, Journ. Afr. Hist. (1961), II (I) 137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

32 Mitchell, B. L., ‘Ecological aspects of game control measures in African wilderness and forested areas’, Kirkia (1961), I.Google Scholar

33 Mauny, R., ‘Histoire des métaux en Afrique occidentale’, Bull. I.F.A.N. (1952), XIV, no. 2, 546–95.Google Scholar

34 Wainwright, G. A., ‘Iron in the Matapan and Meroitic Ages’, Sudan Notes and Records (1945), 5–36.Google Scholar

35 Leakey, M. D., Owen, W. E., and Leakey, L. S. B., ‘Dimple-based pottery from Central Kavirondo’, Coryndon Museum Occasional Paper, no. 2 (Nairobi, 1948).Google Scholar

36 Hiernaw, J., and Maquet, E., ‘Cultures prehistoriques de l'ge des métaux au Ruanda Urundi et au Kivu, Congo Belge’, Acad. roy. des sciences d'Outre mer; Classe des sciencer nat. et méd., New Series (1960), LX, no. 2, 1–102.Google Scholar

37 Nenquin, J., ‘Dimple-based pots from Kasai, Belgian Congo’, Man (1959), 242.Google Scholar

38 See n. 23b above, 287–9.Google Scholar

39 Summers, R. F. H., ‘The Southern Rhodesian Iron Age’, Journ. Afr. Hist. (1961), II (1), 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

40 Posnansky, M., ‘Pottery types from archaeological sites in East Africa’, Journ. Afr. Hist. (1961), II (2), 177–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

41 See n. 32 above.Google Scholar

42 See n. 39 above.Google Scholar

43 See n. 39 above.Google Scholar

44 Robinson, K. R., ‘An early Iron Age site from the Chibi District, Southern Rhodesia’, S. Afr. Arch. Bull. (1961), xvi, no. 63, 75–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

45 See n. 36 above.Google Scholar

46a Lowe, C. van Riet, ‘The Pleistocene Geology and Archaeology of Uganda, Part II, Prehistory’, Geol. Survey of Uganda Mem. (1952), VI.Google Scholar

46b Gardner, T., Wells, L. H., and Schofield, J. F., ‘The recent archaeology of Gokomere, Southern Rhodesia’, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Africa (1940), XXVIII, 219–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

47a Tobias, P. V., ‘Skeletal remains from Inyanga’. In Summers, R. F. H., Inyanga (Cambridge University Press, London, 1958), 559–72.Google Scholar

47b Tobias, P. V. Unpublished report on skeletal remains from Northern Rhodesian sites.Google Scholar

48 Wells, L. H., ‘Late Stone Age human types in central Africa’, Proc. 3rd Pan-African Congress on Prehistory (1957), Clark, J. D., and Cole, S., 183–5.Google Scholar

49 Clark, J. D., ‘A note on the pre-Bantu inhabitants of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland’, S. Afr.Journ. Sd. (1950), XLVII, no. 3, 42–52.Google Scholar

50a Wells, L. H., ‘Fossil man in Northern Rhodesia’. In Clark, J. D., The Stone Age Cultures of Northern Rhodesia (South African Archaeological Society, Cape Town, 1950).Google Scholar

50b See n. 475 above.Google Scholar

50c Galloway, A. (ed.), ‘Symposium on human skeletal remains from the northern and eastern Transvaal’, S. Afr. Journ. Sci. (1935), XXXII, 616–41.Google Scholar

51 Wells, L. H., ‘The fossil human skull from Singa’. In The Pleistocene Fauna of two Blue Nile sites (1951), British Museum (Nat. Hist.), ‘Fossil Mammals of Africa’, no. 2, 29–42.Google Scholar

52 Galloway, A., The Skeletal Remains from Bambandyanalo (Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, 1959).Google Scholar

53 See n. 39 above.Google Scholar

54 Cooke, C. K., ‘Rock art in Matabeleland’. In Summers, R. F. H., ed., Rock Art of Central Africa (National Publications Trust, Southern Rhodesia, 1959).Google Scholar

55 Goodall, E., ‘The rock paintings of Mashonaland’. In Summers, R. F. H., ed., Rock Art of Central Africa (National Publications Trust, Southern Rhodesia, 1959).Google Scholar

56 Robinson, K. R., Khami Ruins (Cambridge University Press, London, 1959).Google Scholar

57a O'Brien, T. P., The Prehistory of Uganda Protectorate (Cambridge University Press, London, 1939).Google Scholar

57b See n. 46a above.Google Scholar

57c Posnansky, M., ‘Excavation of a rock shelter at Hippo Bay, Entebbe’. In Brachi, R. M., Uganda Journal (1960), XXVI, 62–7,.Google Scholar

58 Seen. 36 above.Google Scholar

59a Clark, J. D., ‘The newly discovered Nachikufu Culture of Northern Rhodesia and the possible origin of certain elements of the South African Smithfield Culture’, S. Afr. Arch. Bull. (1950), V, no. 19.Google Scholar

59b Fagan, B. M., ‘A Nachikufu site at Kasama cave, Northern Rhodesia’ (n.d.). In press.Google Scholar

60 Cavazzi da Montecuculo, Istoria descrizione de'tre regni Congo, Matamba e Angola (Bologna, 1968), Alamandini, F., ed.Google Scholar

61 Bequaert, M., ‘La préhistoire du Congo Beige’. In Encyclopédie du Congo Beige (Brussels, 1952), 47–9.Google Scholar

62 Vansina, J., ‘Recording the oral history of BaKuba: II, Results’, Journ. Afr. Hut. (1960), I (2), 257–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

63 Nenquin, J., ‘Une collection de céramique Kisalienne au Musée royale du Congo Beige’, Bull. Soc. Roy. Beige, Anthrop. et Fréhist. (1958), LXIX, 151–210.Google Scholar

64 See n. 8b aboveGoogle Scholar

65 van, Reenen W., Diary of a Journey north of the Orange River in 1797. (Van Viebeeck Society Publications, 1935), 317.Google Scholar

66 Clark, J. D., ‘Certain industries of notched and strangulated scrapers in Rhodesia, their time range and possible use’, S. Afr. Arch. Bull. (1958), XIII, 50, 56–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

67 Clark, J. D., ‘Prehistoric cultures of north-east Angola and their significance in tropical Africa’ (1962), Chap. x. In press.Google Scholar

68a Galloway, A., ‘The Nebarara skull’, S. Afr. Jour,. Sci. (1933), XXX, 585–96.Google Scholar

68b Fosbrooke, H. A., ‘Prehistoric wells, rainponds and associated burials in northern Tanganyika’. In Clark, J. D., and Cole, S., Proceedings of the 3rd Pan-African Congress in Prehistory, Livingstone 1955 (Chatto and Windus, London, 1957), 325–35.Google Scholar

69 Wells, L. H., ‘Recent and Fossil Human Types in South Africa’, Roy. Soc. S. Afr. (1948), Robert Broom Commemorative Volume 133–42.Google Scholar

70 See n. 25 above.Google Scholar

71 Boxer, C. R., The tragic history of the sea, 1589–1622, Hakluyt Society (1957), Second Series, CXII.Google Scholar