Elsevier

Social Science & Medicine

Volume 65, Issue 5, September 2007, Pages 1012-1024
Social Science & Medicine

Anticipation of migration and psychological stress and the Three Gorges Dam project, China

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.05.003Get rights and content

Abstract

Findings from a prospective study of project-induced migration in China's Three Gorges Dam project are reported. The study tests the hypotheses that anticipation of involuntary migration is stressful and that the harmful effects are partially mediated and moderated by the resources migrants possess. Using data collected from a sample of designated migrants (n=975) who will be forced to relocate because they live in an area, which will be flooded once the Three Gorges project is completed, and non-migrants (n=555) in the same region, our analysis indicates that anticipation of involuntary migration is a robust predictor of mental distress. Anticipation of forced migration elevates depression (CES-D) not only directly, but also indirectly by weakening the social and the psychological resources (i.e., social support and mastery), which safeguard the mental well-being of migrants. However, our results show much less support for the hypothesis that resources moderate harmful effects of forced migration.

Introduction

Moving has often been seen as a stressful life event because it disturbs the equilibrium between the mover and the environment and compels the mover to readjust (Ben-Sira, 1997; Bhugra, 2004; Lev-Wiesel, 1998). While this view has been proven useful to explain the prevalence of stress symptoms among voluntary migrants (Harrison et al., 1997; Noh & Avison, 1996) and refugees (Beiser, 1999; Eaton & Garrison, 1992; Porter & Haslam (2001), Porter & Haslam (2005); Rumbaut, 1991), its applicability to project-induced migrants, a different type of involuntary migrants, has seldom been demonstrated.

This study tests the hypotheses that anticipation of project-induced migration is a stressor which would negatively affect the mental well-being of migrants and that migrants with more protective resources should be less adversely affected. The study is guided by the stress process model (Pearlin, 1989; Thoits, 1995). The model suggests not only a potential link between exposure to stressors and depression, but also mechanisms through which presumed negative effects of stressors are mediated and moderated (Ensel & Lin, 1991; Wheaton, 1985). While the empirical validity of the model has been confirmed by studies conducted primarily in the west, the extent to which these conclusions can be generalized to a culturally distinct population is less certain.

This paper presents findings from an analysis of data collected from a sample of designated project-induced migrants in China. These people are designated for forced relocation because they live in an area that will be flooded by a man-made reservoir once the Three Gorges Project (TGP) under construction is completed in 2009. To test the hypothesis that anticipation of forced migration is stressful, a comparison group is included consisting of residents in the same region who are exempted from the relocation because of the higher elevation of their residence.

This study allows us to examine the stress process model in a different cultural setting and for a different type of migration. Evidence which supports the applicability of the model to migration comes predominantly from studies conducted in the west (Beiser, 1999); our knowledge about the utility of the model in the east is limited (Lin, 1989). Furthermore, while a majority of the extant studies focused on voluntary migration and the actual experiences of migration, our study examines the effects of the anticipation of involuntary migration. Although it is logical to predict the same psychological effects from either circumstance, we know little about whether it is the case (Billig, Kohn, & Levav, 2006).

Section snippets

Background and significance

In 1994, China began the construction of the TGP on the Yangtze River, the largest dam project in human history (New York Times, 2006). The TGP is intended to control recurring floods in one of China's most populated regions, to generate hydropower needed for economic expansion, and to facilitate development in China's massive interior by means of improved navigation. The completion of the project, however, will create a reservoir the size of Lake Superior, requiring the resettlement of at

Data and methods

While the focus of this study is involuntary migrants in the Three Gorges region, we also included non-migrants from the region for comparison purpose. Our sample consisted of 975 designated migrants and 555 non-migrants recruited from five communities (clusters) randomly selected from Wanxian Relocation and Development Region (WRDR) which was formerly a part of the Sichuan Province where 80% of designated migrants resided (Weng, 1999). Although we planned to select clusters using the

Results

Before we turn to multivariate analysis, it is helpful to examine selected bivariate associations (Table 1) as the first step toward testing these hypotheses. First, migration status and depression were positively correlated; suggesting that average depression was significantly higher for designated migrants than non-migrants. In addition, depression was positively correlated with migration-induced stresses, a direct measure of stressor, and with chronic strains, a measure of secondary

Discussions

As part of a larger effort to measure the social, economic, and psychological impacts of the TGP using a panel design, this study focuses on the mental health impact. Because the planned post-migration survey is not yet been completed, we report only data from the pre-migration survey. Although the full advantages of prospective measures would not be realized until data from post-migration survey become available, the lack of selectivity in our migrants sample permits us to address the

References (71)

  • R.S. McKelvey et al.

    Premigratory expectations and mental health symptomatology in a group of Vietnamese Ameriasian youth

    Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

    (1993)
  • S.L. Albrecht

    Equity and justice in environmental decision making: A proposed research agenda

    Society and Natural Resources

    (1995)
  • C.M. Aldwin et al.

    Does coping help? A reexamination of the relation between coping and mental health

    Journal of Personality & Social Psychology

    (1987)
  • M. Beiser

    Strangers at the gate: The “Boat People's” first ten years in Canada

    (1999)
  • M. Beiser

    The health of immigrants and refugees in Canada

    Canadian Journal of Public Health

    (2005)
  • M. Beiser et al.

    A comparison of psychiatric disorder in Southeast Asian refugees and resident Canadians

    International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research

    (1994)
  • Z. Ben-Sira

    Immigration, stress, and readjustment

    (1997)
  • D. Bhugra

    Migration and mental health

    Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica

    (2004)
  • Y. Bian et al.

    Market transition and the persistence of power: The changing stratification system in Urban China

    American Sociological Review

    (1996)
  • M. Billig et al.

    Anticipatory stress in the population facing forced removal from the Gaza Strip

    Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease.

    (2006)
  • G.J. Borjas

    Self-selection and the earnings of immigrants

    American Economic Review

    (1987)
  • G.J. Borjas

    The economics of immigration

    Journal of Economic Literature

    (1994)
  • G.P. Brown

    Arable land loss in rural china: Policy and implementation in Jiangsu province

    Asian Survey

    (1995)
  • A. Burton

    Crisis not over for hurricane victims

    Environmental Health Perspectives

    (2006)
  • D.T. Campbell et al.

    Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research

    (1966)
  • M.M. Cernea

    Disaster-related refugees flows and development-caused population displacement

  • T. Cheng et al.

    The origins and social consequences of China's Hukou system

    China Quarterly

    (1994)
  • Chongqing

    (2003)
  • J. Cwikel et al.

    Two-year follow-up study of stress-related disorders among immigrants to Israel from the Chernobyl area

    Environmental Health Perspectives

    (1997)
  • W.W. Eaton et al.

    Mental health in Mariel Cubans and Haitian boat people

    International Migration Review

    (1992)
  • W.M. Ensel et al.

    The life stress paradigm and psychological distress

    Journal of Health and Social Behavior

    (1991)
  • G. Harrison et al.

    Increased incidence of psychotic disorders in migrants from the Caribbean in the United Kingdom

    Psychological Medicine

    (1997)
  • Hwang, S., Qiao X., & Xi, J. (2004). The economic well-being of the family left behind: impact of china's migrant...
  • G. Jasso et al.

    Self-selection and the earnings of immigrants: Comment

    American Economic Review

    (1990)
  • J.L. Krull et al.

    Multilevel modeling of individual and group level mediated effects

    Multivariate Behavioral Research

    (2001)
  • G. Lai

    Work and family roles and psychological well-being in Urban China

    Journal of Health and Social Behavior

    (1995)
  • R. Lev-Wiesel

    Coping with the stress associated with forced relocation in the Golan Heights, Israel

    Journal of Applied Behavioral Science

    (1998)
  • B. Li

    General plan for population resettlement

  • S. Lieberson

    Making it count

    (1985)
  • N. Lin

    Measuring depressive symptomatology in China

    Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease

    (1989)
  • N. Lin et al.

    Social support and depressed mood: A structural analysis

    Journal of Health and Social Behavior

    (1999)
  • J. Mirowsky et al.

    Social patterns of distress

    Annual Review of Sociology

    (1986)
  • S.H. Murdock et al.

    Hazardous wastes in rural America: Impacts, implications, and options for rural communities

    (1999)
  • New York Times (1999). Chinese Journal Boldly criticizes government's dam project. 18 March...
  • New York Times. (2006). The other great wall. 24 September...
  • Cited by (70)

    • Psychological distress and project success: The moderating role of employees’ resilience and mindfulness

      2022, International Journal of Project Management
      Citation Excerpt :

      In particular, an increase in work-related psychological distress is more common among project-based employees owing to complex job requirements, tight work schedules, stringent budgets, changing technologies, and global competition (Bültmann et al., 2002; Demerouti et al., 2000; Kermanshachi et al., 2020; van der Doef et al., 2000). Psychological distress hampers project employees’ cognitive resources and thus affects project success (Hwang et al., 2007). Apart from organizational productivity loss (Cocker et al., 2013), psychological distress also leads to suicidal attempts (Tanji et al., 2018).

    • Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster: Seventh edition

      2023, Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster: Seventh edition
    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text