Anticipation of migration and psychological stress and the Three Gorges Dam project, China
Introduction
Moving has often been seen as a stressful life event because it disturbs the equilibrium between the mover and the environment and compels the mover to readjust (Ben-Sira, 1997; Bhugra, 2004; Lev-Wiesel, 1998). While this view has been proven useful to explain the prevalence of stress symptoms among voluntary migrants (Harrison et al., 1997; Noh & Avison, 1996) and refugees (Beiser, 1999; Eaton & Garrison, 1992; Porter & Haslam (2001), Porter & Haslam (2005); Rumbaut, 1991), its applicability to project-induced migrants, a different type of involuntary migrants, has seldom been demonstrated.
This study tests the hypotheses that anticipation of project-induced migration is a stressor which would negatively affect the mental well-being of migrants and that migrants with more protective resources should be less adversely affected. The study is guided by the stress process model (Pearlin, 1989; Thoits, 1995). The model suggests not only a potential link between exposure to stressors and depression, but also mechanisms through which presumed negative effects of stressors are mediated and moderated (Ensel & Lin, 1991; Wheaton, 1985). While the empirical validity of the model has been confirmed by studies conducted primarily in the west, the extent to which these conclusions can be generalized to a culturally distinct population is less certain.
This paper presents findings from an analysis of data collected from a sample of designated project-induced migrants in China. These people are designated for forced relocation because they live in an area that will be flooded by a man-made reservoir once the Three Gorges Project (TGP) under construction is completed in 2009. To test the hypothesis that anticipation of forced migration is stressful, a comparison group is included consisting of residents in the same region who are exempted from the relocation because of the higher elevation of their residence.
This study allows us to examine the stress process model in a different cultural setting and for a different type of migration. Evidence which supports the applicability of the model to migration comes predominantly from studies conducted in the west (Beiser, 1999); our knowledge about the utility of the model in the east is limited (Lin, 1989). Furthermore, while a majority of the extant studies focused on voluntary migration and the actual experiences of migration, our study examines the effects of the anticipation of involuntary migration. Although it is logical to predict the same psychological effects from either circumstance, we know little about whether it is the case (Billig, Kohn, & Levav, 2006).
Section snippets
Background and significance
In 1994, China began the construction of the TGP on the Yangtze River, the largest dam project in human history (New York Times, 2006). The TGP is intended to control recurring floods in one of China's most populated regions, to generate hydropower needed for economic expansion, and to facilitate development in China's massive interior by means of improved navigation. The completion of the project, however, will create a reservoir the size of Lake Superior, requiring the resettlement of at
Data and methods
While the focus of this study is involuntary migrants in the Three Gorges region, we also included non-migrants from the region for comparison purpose. Our sample consisted of 975 designated migrants and 555 non-migrants recruited from five communities (clusters) randomly selected from Wanxian Relocation and Development Region (WRDR) which was formerly a part of the Sichuan Province where 80% of designated migrants resided (Weng, 1999). Although we planned to select clusters using the
Results
Before we turn to multivariate analysis, it is helpful to examine selected bivariate associations (Table 1) as the first step toward testing these hypotheses. First, migration status and depression were positively correlated; suggesting that average depression was significantly higher for designated migrants than non-migrants. In addition, depression was positively correlated with migration-induced stresses, a direct measure of stressor, and with chronic strains, a measure of secondary
Discussions
As part of a larger effort to measure the social, economic, and psychological impacts of the TGP using a panel design, this study focuses on the mental health impact. Because the planned post-migration survey is not yet been completed, we report only data from the pre-migration survey. Although the full advantages of prospective measures would not be realized until data from post-migration survey become available, the lack of selectivity in our migrants sample permits us to address the
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