Iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized using garlic and onion peel extracts rapidly degrade methylene blue dye
Introduction
Nanotechnology has assisted in many recent achievements in industrial, economic, and social fields. The use of nanoparticles has become widespread, and therefore, these particles undoubtedly enter the environment [1,2]. The field of nanotechnology has evolved, and the physical, chemical, and biological properties of nanoparticles have led to their increased use in fabricating microelectronics, lithium batteries, non-linear optics systems, transistors, emitting diodes, sensors, and products for solar energy capture. In medicine, nanoparticles have been used to treat cancer and to produce antimicrobial agents. In addition, they are used as catalysts, in pollution control, in gas detectors, and for many other important uses [3,4]. Iron oxide (FeO) NPs are considered exceptional materials for environmental and biomedical applications due to their narrow band gaps, chemical constancy, magnetic properties, and other characteristics [5,6]. Iron oxide, Fe2O3, is a ferric oxide that is widely distributed in nature. It is one of the most thermodynamically stable iron oxide compounds under standard temperature and pressure and may be weakly magnetic. Fig. 1 shows the crystal structures of FeO and Fe2O3 [7,8].
Iron oxide NPs are synthesized by physical and chemical methods that follow one of two general approaches: top-down and bottom-up. In the top-down approach, PLA (pulse laser ablation), etching, and other methods are used on bulk materials to access nanoscale structures. In contrast, in the bottom-up approach, nanoscale structures are accessed by applying simple chemical methods (oxidation and reduction reactions) to molecules or atoms [9,10]. Iron oxide NPs have been synthesized using chemical and physical methods, but the disadvantages of these methods include the requirements for highly toxic reactions with agents that reduce materials, such as sodium hydrazine and borohydride. Furthermore, these reactions may present many undesirable risks to humans and other biological systems [[11], [12], [13], [14]]. In the last decade, researchers discovered environmentally friendly NP synthesis methods, including biosynthesis or green synthesis. The advantages of biosynthesis methods are that they are easy, simple, clean, and eco-friendly. Plant extracts are especially attractive in this regard as they are selected from biological systems as they are safe, fast-acting, and produce large quantities of NPs [[15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24]]. NPs used for environmental remediation may allow for the removal of multiple categories of environmental contaminants, including dyes, which are gradually disrupting aquatic ecosystems by altering water chemistry. In recent years, severe damage has been caused by untreated dye discharge, comprising 10–15% of dyes in the effluent from textile, paper, tanning leather, and food-processing industries as well as from various dyes used for hair coloring products [25,26]. Dyes are among the most detrimental contaminants as they are toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, and nondegradable and tend to be quite stable for an extended period in the environment. Methylene blue (MB) is an aromatic cationic dye of synthetic origin used extensively in the textile industry. Exposure to MB can lead to skin damage and burning sensation in the eyes, and its ingestion can cause nausea, vomiting, and conditions such as methemoglobinemia [27,28]. Several physicochemical methods have been used to treat these colored contaminants in effluent, namely cloud point extraction, coagulation, membrane filtration, chemical oxidation, and various other adsorption techniques [[29], [30], [31]]. From the viewpoint of economic feasibility, easy availability, and high efficiency, adsorption is an especially promising solution [32]. Biosorption is the most ecofriendly technique to remediate dye contaminants in an efficient manner [33]. Multiple studies have investigated the potential of NPs to remove contaminants. For example, Koli et al. [34] synthesized metal oxide NPs and applied them to the degradation of dyes. Priya et al. [35] synthesized NPs and applied them to wastewater treatments and synthesized iron NPs for use in environmental treatment [[36], [37], [38]]. IONPs were characterized by XRD analysis (XRD-6000/Japan), and the results were compared with the JCPDS card (Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards). The orientation of IONPs grown samples was investigated by XRD measurements in Nanotechnology Laboratory and Advanced Materials/The Materials Research Department/The Ministry of Science and Technology in Iraq. The morphology and particles size of IONPs were analyzed using FE-SEM with Tescan Mira3 SEM-Czechia in Mashhad, Iran. The UV–Vis transmission spectra for the liquid solution of IONPs was prepared with a double beam spectrophotometer (UV-1800, Shimadzu) for a range of 200–900 nm. The functions group and vibrations modes were studied using Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR) by Spectrum GX FT-IR (PerkinElmer) with a potassium bromide (KBr) beam splitter, and a mid IR triglycine sulfate (TGC) detector was used to perform the polarized IR reflectance.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
Ferric chloride (FeCl3) salt (Sigma-Aldrich, India, purity (99.99%)) was purchased from a local market (Baghdad, Iraq) and the garlic and onion peels were also collected locally from (Baghdad, Iraq). These plants are rich sources of flavonoids, carbohydrate, alkaloids, proteins, phenolic acid, vitamins, ascorbic acid, glycosides, and minerals. All the solutions were prepared using distilled water (DW) obtained with a distillery device (Gallenkamp, England). The methylene blue (MB) dye (chemical
Preparation and characterization of IONPs using the garlic and onion peels extracts
IONPs were prepared using ferric chloride solution as an iron precursor with the garlic and onion peel extracts under different reaction conditions. Garlic and onion peel extracts were used to control the formation rate and stability of IONPs. The phytochemicals in garlic and onion extracts can reduce iron ions rapidly. In addition, these extracts play an important role in reducing and stabilizing prepared IONPs, and they can be used simply. Garlic and onion extracts contain various important
Conclusions
In this work, IONPs obtained by mixing FeCl3 salt with garlic and onion peel extracts successfully removed MB dye from water. The changing color of the treated solutions provided evidence of the formation of NPs. Peel extracts have been proven effective as a reducing, stabilizing, and anti-caking agent in NP preparation. XRD analyses revealed that FeO NPs (wustite) using garlic peel extract were 34–70 nm in size with cubic structure, while the Fe2O3NPs (hematite) synthesized by onion peel
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The author(s) would like to thank Mustansiriyah University (www.uomustansiriyah.edu.iq) Baghdad-Iraq for its support in the present work.
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2022, Science of the Total EnvironmentCitation Excerpt :Indeed, Franco et al. (2021) reported that the iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized from green tea leaf extract using 0.1 M metal ions had an average particle size of 20.1 nm. This size was smaller than that (34 nm) using garlic and onion extract and metal concentration of 1 M as reported by Abid et al. (2021). Zirconium dioxide (zirconia, ZrO2) is known for numerous advantages such as good natural white color, excellent strength, high toughness, good corrosion resistance and stable chemical properties (Liu et al., 2020).
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2021, Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring and ManagementCitation Excerpt :Further the applicability of α-Fe2O3 NPs prepared by using sustainable methods can also be tested for the removal of toxic dyes from aqueous solution, thanks to the photocatalytically active nature of α-Fe2O3 NPs [71,72].