Personality and disinhibitory psychopathology in alcohol consumption: A study from the biological-factorial personality models of Eysenck, Gray and Zuckerman
Introduction
Alcoholism is a complex social behavior that includes alcohol consumption, behavioral problems related to alcohol, alcohol expectancies, family history of alcoholism, parenting and aggression/delinquency (Barnow et al., 2004). Personality is related with social variables and several personality traits confer vulnerability to earlier drinking onset, binge drinking and alcohol problems (Castellanos-Ryan, O'Leary-Barrett, Sully, & Conrod, 2013). Studies on social risk factors for alcoholism that include personality variables have used the biological-factorial models of Eysenck, Gray, Zuckerman, and Cloninger or the Five Factor Personality Model (Ibáñez et al., 2010). Other models make predictions about the interplay of personality and drinking motivations in explaining alcohol abuse that incorporate some combined traits included in the previous models (Pihl & Peterson, 1995).
The Eysenck personality model reports that psychoticism, and to a lesser extent extraversion, are positively related to alcohol consumption in a non-addicted population. In contrast, pathological drinkers disclose high scores in neuroticism trait (Grau & Ortet, 1999; Guy, Smith, & Bentler, 1994; Ibáñez et al., 2010). Some studies that examined alcohol consumption in relation to measures of reward sensitivity based on Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST; Corr, 2002) inform that BAS (Behavioral Activation System, related to impulsivity) but not BIS (Behavioral Inhibition System, related to anxiety) scores were related to alcohol use measured by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT; Loxton & Dawe, 2001). In addition, other studies have described significant positive association between BAS and alcohol consumption (Lyvers, Czerczyk, Follent, & Lodge, 2009; Pardo, Aguilar, Molinuevo, & Torrubia, 2007). In this line, hazardous drinkers reported significantly higher levels of sensitivity to reward (Torrubia, Avila, Molto, & Caseras, 2001), but obtained levels of sensitivity to punishment similar to control group (Kambouropoulos & Staiger, 2007). Zuckerman and Kuhlman (2000) describe the relationships between personality and risk-taking in six areas: smoking, drinking, drugs, sex, driving, and gambling in undergraduate university students. In males, drinking behavior correlated strongly with sociability, aggression-hostility and impulsive sensation seeking; while in females impulsive sensation seeking was only correlated with drinking (Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, Teta, & Kraft, 1993). The relationships between personality and generalized risk-taking (smoking, drinking, drugs, sex, driving, and gambling) have also been studied in undergraduate university students (Zuckerman & Kuhlman, 2000). In males, drinking behavior correlated strongly with sociability, aggression-hostility and impulsive sensation seeking; while in females impulsive sensation seeking was only correlated with drinking (Zuckerman et al., 1993).
Cloninger's predicted temperament pattern did significantly predict the number of substance use disorder symptoms. For alcohol, Novelty Seeking and low Persistence were most consistent scales that fit Cloninger's prediction (Hartman, Hopfer, Corley, Hewitt, & Stallings, 2013). The risk of alcohol abuse varied from 4 to 75% depending on childhood personality (Cloninger, Sigvardsson, & Bohman, 1988). Novelty seeking is the Cloninger personality domain more related to alcohol consumption (Grau & Ortet, 1999; Ibáñez et al., 2010). Moreover, harm avoidance (anxiety) is associated with continuation and difficulty in stopping alcohol abuse in order to reduce the negative affect that drinkers feel when they are anxious (Cloninger, Sigvardsson, Przybeck, & Svrakic, 1995).
Relationships between Five-Factor personality model, using the NEO-PI-R, and drinking show that agreeableness and conscientiousness domains were negatively linked to drinking. Impulsiveness facet and excitement seeking were also related with drinking behavior (Ruiz, Pincus, & Dickinson, 2003). These findings were consistent with the subsequent literature (Ibáñez et al., 2010; Kotov, Gamez, Schmidt, & Watson, 2010; Malouff, Thorsteinsson, Rooke, & Schutte, 2007). The most predictive personality traits of alcohol consumption are sensation seeking, impulsivity-disinhibition, extraversion, aggression-hostility, psychoticism (also agreeableness and conscientiousness inverted), anxiety and hopelessness (Ibáñez, Ruiperez, Villa, Moya, & Ortet, 2008; Mackinnon, Kehayes, Clark, Sherry, & Stewart, 2014).
Personality traits combinations using several personality constructs referred previously and have been developed to study the relationships between personality drinking. The four factor model of personality vulnerability identifies four personality risk factors for alcohol misuse: hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity, and sensation seeking. Hopelessness and impulsivity were positively related to drinking motives with different mechanisms and motivations for alcohol misuse (Mackinnon et al., 2014). Sher, Grekin, and Williams (2005) considering that a variety of personality traits have been reliably associated with both the development and the manifestation of alcohol use disorders. These personality traits can be grouped in three clusters: Neuroticism/Negative emotionality, Impulsivity/Disinhibition, and Extraversion/Sociability and that, broadly considered, correspond to “Big Three” models such as those proposed by Eysenck (1994) and Tellegen (1994). Ibáñez et al. (2008) adapted and extended this model: Neuroticism/negative Emotionality (N), which includes anxiety, harm avoidance, negative emotionality and neuroticism; Extraversion/Sociability (E), including sociability, activity, positive emotionality and extraversion; and Impulsivity/Disinhibition (IMP), including sensation seeking, aggressiveness, novelty seeking, low constraint (impulsiveness), psychoticism, low agreeableness and low conscientiousness. In adults, alcohol consumption is associated with impulsiveness, while neuroticism seems more related with consequences of alcohol problems and extraversion is not related with alcoholism (see revision of Ibáñez et al., 2008). Most studies consider a single personality model, however the Sher et al. (2005) approach makes it necessary to consider several models together.
The main objective of this study was investigate the contribution of Eysenck, Gray and Zuckerman personality models and drinking variables in young healthy large sample. We were interested in clarifying the relationships between personality and drinking beyond specific personality models (Sher et al., 2005), grouping personality models in three factors, and the differential predictive validity from different models. The more specific aim is check that the new questionnaire of the Zuckerman model can be hierarchically organized together Eysenck and Gray's models in a three factor solution and study the role of this disinhibition factor with different alcohol-related outcomes, and to specifically study the association of ZKA-PQ with alcohol use patterns.
Section snippets
Participants and procedure
Participants were 312 men (Mage = 23.32, SDage = 3.56) and 356 women (Mage = 22.76; SDage = 4.06, Range 18–30). All participants were Caucasian. They were recruited by a “snowball” technique in which the psychology undergraduates engaged friends to participate voluntarily using a similar procedure proposed by Grau and Ortet (1999). The participants were invited to respond questionnaires in paper and pencil format. Each student gave the form to three men and three women between 18 and 22, 23–26,
Sex differences, descriptive statistics and alpha consistency
Men scored higher in impulsiveness, venturesomeness, psychoticism, sensation Sseking, and sensitivity to reward. Females scored higher empathy, neuroticism and sensitivity to punishment. But nevertheless, Cohen (1988) suggested that d = 0.50 represents a ‘medium’ effect size and 0.80 a ‘large’ effect size. According with these considerations venturesomeness, empathy, and neuroticism represent the more significant sex differences. Alpha internal consistency ranged between 0.76 and 0.89 (Table 1).
Discussion
According to our objectives we investigated the relationships between personality and drinking behavior in young males. The results showed that impulsivity, venturesomeness, sensation seeking, psychoticism, aggressiveness, and sensitivity to reward were significantly related to all alcohol variables according to others studies (see Conrod, Petersen, & Pihl, 1997; González, Ibáñez, & Peñate, 1997; Grau & Ortet, 1999; Ibáñez et al., 2010; Sher & Trull, 1994; Wills, Windle, & Cleary, 1998). On
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank the Psychology of Personality students of the University of Lleida for their collaboration in the collection of data for this study. We also want to thank Professor Jorge Moya, personality and alcohol specialist for his help in the design and conclusions.
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