Perceptions of factors that facilitate and impede learning among twice-exceptional college students with autism spectrum disorder

This qualitative comparative case study explored the personal perceptions and institutional factors that facilitated academic success, as well as challenges, in college among a sample of 40 academically talented students with autism spectrum disorder (2e/ASD) who were enrolled in highly competitive colleges and universities in the United States. Findings from the study included that the majority had excellent reading and writing skills, but struggled with mathematics. The personal trait that most enabled them to be successful in college, described by 26 of the 40 students, was a driving passion for learning. Half of the participants were motivated to succeed academically by the independence college offers, as well the flexibility to take advantage of a range of opportunities, and the development of their personal autonomy. The majority of the participants indicated that faculty members' instructional practices were their greatest barriers to learning.

With autism diagnosis rates increasing, the number of students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) both entering and exiting the K-12 educational system has increased (Fairchild, Powell, Gadke, Spencer, & Stratton, 2020). According to the National Center for Educational Statistics. (2020) (2020), 11% of all students who received special education services in the 2018-2019 school year had ASD, an increase from 6% of all students in 2010-2011 (National Center for Educational Statistics. (2013Statistics. ( ), 2013. Postsecondary education appears to be a viable outcome for many of these students (Dymond, Meadan, & Pickens, 2017) and postsecondary institutions are receiving increasing numbers of applications from high functioning ASD applicants (Barnhill, 2016;Zeedyk, Tipton, & Blacher, 2016). However, the most recent specific data available on this topic indicate that access rates are still lower for these students, as only 44% of secondary students with ASD go on to participate in postsecondary education. This is the third lowest rate of the 12 disability categories reported (Newman et al., 2011).
In addition, we know little about twice exceptional students with ASD (2E/ASD) in postsecondary educational settings (Amran & Majid, 2019;Zeedyk et al., 2016). Twice exceptional, or 2E, refers to students who are both academically talented and also diagnosed with one or more of the special education categories defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA), with the exception of those students with cognitive disabilities (Reis, Baum, & Burke, 2014). Gyarmathy (2009) suggests many characteristics of Asperger's syndrome (a sub-type of ASD used until 2013) coincide with features of academic gifts and talents including, "intense interest, perfectionism, sensitivity, the ability to see things differently, non-conformity, and the ability of visualization" (p. 9). It can be difficult for typically developing peers and college faculty to reconcile issues facing high functioning individuals with ASD. These students can be intellectually advanced, often within a specific domain, while also lacking various practical, social, and emotional skills needed to succeed in postsecondary education (Gelbar, Shefyck, & Reichow, 2015;Zeedyk et al., 2016). It should be noted that in 2013, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-5 subsumed Asperger's Syndrome under the category of autism spectrum disorder (APA, 2013). Thus, the research summarized in this article includes research about students with Asperger's Syndrome under the ASD umbrella.
Individuals with ASD are a heterogeneous group with academic strengths, yet attending postsecondary education is a challenging experience for many of these students . While some literature described below relates to college students with ASD in general, little is known to date about factors that impact learning in college of this specific group of 2e/ASD students. Reis et al. (2014) interviewed a sample of 40 2/eASD college students and described their high school experiences. The present study uses the same data set to explore the perceptions of personal and institutional factors that facilitated academic success in college, as well as both personal and institutional factors that presented challenges to learning among a sample of 40 2e/ ASD college students.

Academic strengths
Individuals with 2E/ASD typically possess above average intellectual abilities, interests in focused areas which they can develop into expertise, and the ability to think divergently (Barnhill, 2016). Research on students who are 2E/ASD report a range of attributes that can be of value in postsecondary settings. For example, one study suggested that specific patterns in how students with ASD process information. These included focusing on precision, analytical skills and powers of observation, and an ability to meet rigorous academic standards (Van Hees, Moyson, & Roeyers, 2014). Many of these students exhibit passion for studying, and the ability to focus on academic goals, and demonstrate attention to detail. They may also have strengths in memory, analytical thinking, original and creative thoughts, and a desire to acquire accurate knowledge (Barnhill, 2016;Gurbuz, Hanley, & Riby, 2018). Strong resilience (Fabri, Fenton, Andrews, & Beaton, 2020), diligence, and pride in high academic achievement  has also been reported in this population. Gelbar et al. (2015) noted that 80% of a sample of college graduates with ASD reported having a college GPA above 3.0.

Social strengths
While ASD is often associated with social difficulties, this diverse group of students may demonstrate some social strengths. Gurbuz et al. (2018) identified several personality qualities that assist students with ASD in their social situations in postsecondary education, including sincerity, fairness, and willingness to listen to others. Students with autism reported being independent, good listeners, and having the confidence to work on task when needed. They also noted that the university setting provided an opportunity to test their personal abilities (Gurbuz et al., 2018).  also reported strong self-determination and self-advocacy skills in students with ASD that may help overcome difficulties and support high academic achievement. Reis et al. (2014) analyzed a subset of data related to high school experiences from the same set of interviews with 40 college students identified as 2e/ASD described in this study. They found 90% of the participants participated in sports, clubs, or extracurricular activities, which were beneficial in the development of interests, social understandings, capacity to work with others, and opportunities for firsttime leadership. Ten participants (25%) from this group had also founded a club, activity, or assumed a leadership role in a club in high school . Such extracurricular activities are linked to higher academic achievement, and to greater time-management, social, and leadership skills (Christison, 2013). These are all traits that are likely to be required for admission to the selective schools which the 2eASD students interviewed by Reis et al. (2014) were enrolled.

Academic areas
Some research investigated specific academic difficulties and barriers to higher education of students with disabilities, including ASD (Nuske, Rillotta, Bellon, & Richdale, 2019). Gurbuz et al. (2018) asked students with ASD to self-report on their academic skills in a range of areas. Only 35% noted strengths in writing and research skills, 15% reported critical thinking skills and the ability to focus on details in one subject, and only 12% indicated being able to study for extended periods of time. Gurbuz et al. (2018) also found 31% of students with ASD reported absorption in one subject at the detriment of others, 27% selfreported they lacked clear instructions about academic expectations, 12% reported perfectionism and a constant binary feeling of failure or success, and 8% explained they did not know how to pace themselves. These issues and personal feelings of uncertainty that completed work was not good enough may result in burn out or exhaustion, according to self-reports. Group work, class participation and presentations, asking questions and conversing with classmates were found to be a barrier for some students (Anderson, Stephenson, Carter, & Carlon, 2019;Gurbuz et al., 2018). Previous studies have shown a higher rate of course repetition in this population, as well as higher levels of dropping out without a degree in comparison to their neurotypical peers (White, Ollendick, & Bray, 2011).

Mental health
Students with ASD have reported experiencing high levels of anxiety, stress, depression, isolation, loneliness, and fatigue and these are noted to increase barriers for postsecondary students who are diagnosed with ASD (Cai & Richdale, 2015;Gardner, 2020). McMorris et al. (2018) asked students with ASD to self-report co-occurring mental health issues. They found that 31% of their sample reported being diagnosed with anxiety and 21% reported having been diagnosed with depression. Gurbuz et al. (2018) found 54% of their sample of students with ASD self-reported having mental health issues. Thirty eight percent of this group reported resulting difficulties navigating academic and social lives. Issues with anxiety was reported to impact students' ability to manage many aspects of university life and these interacted with everyday stressors and demands (Hillier et al., 2017;Van Hees et al., 2014).

Social skills
Many individuals with ASD cope with the intellectual and academic demands of college but struggle with other factors that are essential for academic success (Dijkhuis, Sonneville, Ziermans, Staal, & Swaab, 2020). Trevisan and Birmingham (2015) noted that the limited research available on college students with ASD emphasizes the challenges they experience are often not explained by differences in cognitive abilities. Gurbuz et al. (2018) found students with ASD self-reported difficulties in initiating social interactions, expressing themselves to others, and making new friends. They also reported students experiencing social isolation, loneliness, and social activities that were described as overwhelming, unpredictable, and sometimes superficial (Gurbuz et al., 2018). According to Van Hees et al. (2014), students with ASD cited the importance of a social network, and they found social contacts to be exhausting but necessary. This research also found that these students often struggle to fit in, experiencing difficulties in managing the social demands of conversations, and attending social engagements.

Accommodations and supports available to students who are 2e/ASD in college
Students with ASD should be able to succeed in college, when given appropriate educational supports (Cai & Richdale, 2016). Research on the effectiveness of academic supports is lacking, despite prior research indicating these supports were often preferred by students with ASD (Anderson et al., 2019). Accommodations emphasizing strength-based strategies appear to result in improved learning achievement, increased self-efficacy, and the ability to overcome social and emotional challenges (Amran & Majid, 2019). Van Hees et al. (2014) suggested the need for individualized accommodations based upon student feedback and the diversity and complexity of their ASD. Common academic accommodations used by students with ASD include using extra time on exams, alternate testing sites when appropriate, having note-taker, alternative assessment methods, technology supports, a reduced course load, priority registration, and preferential seating. Working with advisors and peer mentors were also often reported as received services (Barnhill, 2016;Gardner, 2020;Gurbuz et al., 2018). In addition to these services, both Gardner (2020) and Gelbar et al. (2015) found single room accommodations were paradoxical in that they supported sensory and anxiety challenges but could also lead to feelings of isolation.

Rationale for the present study
Postsecondary education is critical for improving life outcomes for many individuals with ASD and can often result in improved income, self-confidence, skill building, and better employment opportunities (Fairchild et al., 2020). The number of students with ASD, including those who are 2e/ASD, applying to postsecondary education continues to rise, yet research has still not identified a clear pattern regarding the types of services they need to succeed to identify their strengths, accommodate their challenges, integrate into their campus communities, and graduate from colleges and universities (Barnhill, 2016;Gelbar et al., 2015). In summary, little research has been conducted documenting the experiences of college students with ASD and even less with 2E/ASD students (Barnhill, 2016;Gelbar et al., 2015). This is especially true in regard to the lack of research from a student perspective (Anderson et al., 2019). Understanding the personal and lived experiences of college students with disabilities can help to identify ways to support their transition to, and experiences in college (Fleming, Oertle, & Plotner, 2017). Furthermore, as noted by Gillespie-Lynch et al. (2017), it is "an important first step in developing effective and socially valid supports is to involve autistic students" (p. 5). Therefore, this study addresses these needs and gaps in the literature and presents the results of semi-structured interviews conducted with 40 college students with ASD who were attended or had recently graduated from very competitive to most competitive postsecondary institutions in the United States. The following research questions guided the analysis: 1) What are the perceptions of 2e/ASD college students regarding personal and institutional factors that facilitated successful learning in college? 2) What are the perceptions of 2e/ASD college students regarding personal and institutional factors that challenged successful learning in college?

Methods
The present study is part of a larger investigation described by Reis et al. (2014) in which semi-structured interviews were conducted with 40 college students with ASD. Each student was enrolled in or was a recent graduate of a very-to most-competitive institution in the United States as ranked by U.S. News and World Report. (2021), 2021 Best National University Rankings. In addition, students had to meet the following inclusion criteria: (a) a previous ASD diagnosis from an educational setting, clinical psychologist or psychiatrist; (b) be registered as a student with ASD with a postsecondary center for students with disabilities; (d) prior demonstration of school-based evidence of academic talents and high potential, which could include being formally identified as gifted or talented in school, and/or participation in gifted education programs or services, and/or participation in advanced placement or advanced academic courses.
In total, 40 students participated in individual interviews with the three first authors. A semi-structured interview protocol was used that queried students about three main areas: 1) high school experiences and personal academic and social skills that assisted them to complete high school (Reis et al, 2021); 2) secondary transition planning and experiences (Masked A, in development); and 3) perceptions of personal and institutional factors that impacted learning in college (the present study). Several of the initial interviews were conducted in person, with the remaining interviews conducted via telephone because of the COVID-19 pandemic in the spring and early summer of 2020. The interviews lasted approximately one hour and were recorded and transcribed to written text with each respondent assigned a pseudonym. Each transcript was reviewed by the research team to check for accuracy in transcription and was then shared with the respective respondent to ensure the respondent believed it accurately captured the conversation.
Data coding followed the process suggested by Syed and Nelson (2015). A thorough qualitative analysis of the transcript was conducted by the researchers and preliminary themes were identified. Two researchers then agreed upon a consensus for a code book, including shared definitions of each code. The first author then re-read and coded each transcript. A random 25% of the transcript excerpts were selected and were read and coded by the second author. An intercoder reliability (ICR) of 0.76 was calculated and each disagreement was reviewed and resolved, resulting in a new IRR of 0.86 which is within guidelines outlined by O'Connor and Joffe (2020).
The first author then conducted a thematic analysis using procedures suggestions by Braun and Clarke (2006) and Campbell, Quincy, Osserman, and Pedersen (2013). The codes were re-read and sorted into broad themes and categories, and then reviewed again. Categories that did not have enough data to support them as a stand-alone theme were collapsed and a preliminary thematic map was developed. This was reviewed by the second author, who agreed that the map accurately captured the themes within the data. The map was also reviewed for clarity by two additional co-authors, who had no suggestions for changes. The direct quotes were then matched with the correct respondent.

Student demographics
As noted, 40 students participated in an individual interview with one of three first authors. Two-thirds of the students (68%) were male, 23% were female, and 10% identified as other (e.g., non-binary and/or transgender). There was a nearly even split among year in college, with 23% of the participants freshmen, 13% sophomores, 20% juniors, 15% seniors, and 10% graduate students. An additional 20% noted that they were somewhere between two levels due to the number of credits earned at the time of the interview. Nearly two-thirds of the students (62.5%) reported a high school GPA higher than 3.5, with remainder reporting a GPA between 3.0 and 3.4. In high school, ninety percent of the students participated in extracurricular activities such as sports or clubs, 73% took advanced or accelerated programs, and 53% were officially identified as being gifted or academic talented while in high school.

Personal and institutional factors that facilitated successful learning in college
The students identified a range of factors and skills that helped facilitate their learning in college. These included personal strengths and interests in specific academic areas, non-academic personal traits and social skills. Institutional factors included practices by instructors that facilitate learning as well as provided support services, both disability and non-disability specific. Each is described in more detail below with representative student quotes to illustrate the theme.

Personal academic strengths
When asked what academic skill area they believed was their strongest, the vast majority, 29 students, commented on their reading and writing skills. Several described these skills as "good" or "excellent." Penny summarized her skills in writing and how important these were, stating: My writing and reading have definitely contributed to the success. I TA'd for a bit and seeing the way my students wrote, I definitely can see my strengths, I was definitely in a better place than a lot of my peers. If I wasn't a good writer, I wouldn't have made it through college.
Likewise, Rachel described the importance of having strong writing skills when entering college, noting "most of my writing skills were helpful coming into college because I could use what I learned in high school to write essays and not have the professor hold my hand and not ask them tons of questions." Levi described the link between his reading skills and his content area interest, explaining "I feel like a lot of people struggle with doing the reading for any given course, that has been easy for me because that's been interesting to me.".
Nine of the students indicated that their strongest academic skills were in math. Karter stated "I excel at" math. Molly explained that her strengths were "anything involving math, if I know how math works, then I can solve any problem I need to".

Non-academic personal traits
The students described a variety of personal traits that enabled them to be successful in college. The most common one, described by 26 of the students, was a driving passion for learning. Sam stated, "I'm a very curious person so if I find something that my mind will latch onto, it'll stay latched and I'll be able to absorb a lot of information and use it." Molly described that: I tend to get very interested in some of these topics and I want to learn as much as I can and do extra problems, so that can be a strength. Also, sometimes I can focus really well on very specific things.
Several students also used words such as perseverance, grit, motivation, and even "stubbornness" as being significant contributors to their success. Ashley, who described the value of her stubbornness to get through "hard times" went on to say: I've always loved school and I've always been someone who wants to learn and get good grades. I have the drive to want to do well and do my homework even if I'm not feeling well. I like my majors, the hardest classes are the easier ones because I'm not being challenged, it's not boring but it's too easy so I have to make myself want to learn it.
Sixteen of the students described their belief in the importance of taking care of their physical and mental health. Regular exercise and relaxation techniques were often noted, including deep breathing, meditation, listening to music or watching videos. Melissa summarized, "I listen to music and I cope with things like having my own room, I can find space, just for me where I don't have to listen or interact when I need a break, it helps a lot.". Personal organization and time management skills were described by 12 students as being key to their academic success. This included planning ahead, breaking down long term assignments, and setting and holding to personal schedules. Levi described that "I try to plan everything out ahead of time, hour by hour, everyday. I try to go to school early and stay late because I focus better there than at home." Emily also commented on her "ability to organize and plan ahead. A lot of students go through the semesters haphazardly and don't finish their homework on time. I look at the syllabus and plan everything out. I plan everything.".

Social networks
Although several of the students discussed how social activities can create challenges for them, 19 also commented on the importance and benefit of social networks and activities, including clubs and extracurricular opportunities. These students described being involved in specific clubs, including writing, metalworking, gaming, chess, financial management, sports-based, religious, and politically focused organizations. Penny explained the importance of her social circle, commenting "My senior year, there was tons of stress on me and my senior thesis, my biggest relief was hanging out with my friends. I was drawing energy from hanging out with people I enjoyed being around." Carter described that "in high school I was an introvert and I decided to put myself out there and it helped for sure." Nine students also discussed how one of the most enjoyable parts of college was meeting new people, some who are like-minded and share interests, and others who are diverse. For example, Caitlyn said "I've met a lot of people who are academically at the same level as me and have common interests like all enjoy calculus," whereas Dylan commented that one of his favorite parts of college was "meeting new people. Going to the same school for seven years, you hang out with all of the same people. The school climate is diverse, with different perspectives." Ashley described the importance of "just being able to ask questions with professors and just meeting a bunch of new people. The more good experiences I have the more it reinforces that it can be a good experience.".

Instructors that facilitate student success in learning
The students were asked to describe things that college-level instructors do that make learning easier for them. The most common responses, shared by 15 respondents, related instructors who demonstrate passion for the subject, and concern and support for the students and understanding of hardships. Aiden stated, "enthusiasm and making you interested. Every professor I've had has made it interesting and engaging, they don't just copy and read." Matthew also explained that "the best professors show passion for what they do and also have the caring to make a personal connection. Some teachers that are the best in college want to make a personal connection with their students." Several students commented on the value of professors who are accessible to students, either in class or via office hours. Edgar summarized, "especially in your major, tell your students to get to know their professors-make a personal connection. Go to their office hours-initiate conversations with them. Get to know them and ask them questions. Create a relationship.".
The students also discussed the value of professors being clear in their course requirements and instruction. Penny stated: My favorite professor was effective in accounting for neurodiversity, she posted slides, comprehensive readings, additional readings, low stress group projects, individual presentation options if you chose, a lot more freedom and flexibility with deadlines. Overall, the methods with which my professors taught with format was helpful, and office hours constantly.
Walter concurred, describing "the best professors are good at breaking things down in a way that we can all understand things. They use a lot of different elements within the seminars, such as PowerPoints, and actual examples of things." Providing notes in advance discussed specifically by eight students was as a valuable technique to facilitate learning, as the notes were both as a visual aid during class and a tool that could be reviewed after class.

Supports received from the institution
The students described the value of a range of supports provided by the institution, generally related to disability services, and it is interesting to note that some of the most common accommodations had also been extended to them during high school. The most common was test taking accommodations, identified by 19 students. These included extended test time, taking tests in quiet locations, or the use of computers for essay exams. In previous research summarized earlier , participants discussed having experienced these accommodations in high school and the need for these continued. For example, Chris described the importance of extended time, stating: My test anxiety is bad so I always take untimed tests-I feel badly because I need it-I feel like I should be getting the stuff faster, but I know I need it so take this in all of my classes.
Darrell also explained a situation when accommodations were important to him: When I had three final exams I could take them on three separate days and that helped me prioritize my study plans. They're helpful because I feel more comfortable and more relaxed when I can get the job done and perform well. With all the time spent studying and in case I forget something, I can grasp it again in my mind, I use the time to think as best as I can before the final submission.
The next most common accommodation, described by 13 students, related to course notes. This included a notetaker, being provided with course notes online, or the use of a smart pen or computer to write notes. Rachel explained that this accommodation allowed her to pay attention during class, whereas Sam said that the notetaker was useful because of attendance lenience due to sleep issues. Kevin described the benefit of having a notetaker to help with his anxiety, as he said, "I get a bit panicked when the teacher goes through the slides faster than I can write them down. It's a godsend in classes with diagrams because those take a long time.".
Ten students described the value of being able to work individually with a professional, and disability advisors, academic advisors, and psychologists were all noted. Matthew stated "thanks to my advisors, I am doing better. I am detaching myself and my problems from my grades and I am doing better now." Penny also explained the value of these supports, stating: I was enrolled with the disabled students' program, so I got accommodations, I had a lot of support from executive dysfunction. I utilized them less and less. I also utilized the career development department once I was trying to figure out what to do after college and figure out internships during school. I had specialized coordinators, that one on one support was immensely helpful.

Favorite parts of college
The students were also asked to describe their favorite part of college. The most common point, mentioned by 20 students, was the independence college provides, including being in charge of one's own schedule, the flexibility to take advantage of a range of opportunities, and the development of their personal autonomy and growth. Carlos summarized many of these points in his response, stating that he most enjoyed: The freedom to be me. The transitional stage between a high school student and going out and working in the work world. The freedom to choose to do things on my own. The freedom to choose projects on my own. I think another thing is that I am a bit forgetful sometimes and if I do my work at my own pace. Freedom to do things on your own timetable.
Susan also explained what she liked: Getting exposed to so many different opportunities. I like the sense of autonomy as well. I could get up when I wanted to and could have my alone time and my space. A new thing that happened in high school was that my mother was constantly checking my grades. But in college, she couldn't do this. She drove me crazy. In college, I was on my own and handled things well on my own. I learned to trust myself.
Fifteen of the students also described enjoying the opportunity to learn. In some cases, it was within a specific area, while for others it was the variety of topics that appealed to them. Carter stated that he enjoyed a topic because of "how conceptual it is, how you need to understand the topic behind it." Students discussed the enjoyment of learning from experts in different areas, as well as from their peers. Molly explained that "my favorite part of college is the passion of my professors and having nerdy conversations. I like to get involved with them in so many different ways." Sam described the link between how he enjoyed and was influenced by a specific learning experience: Probably being in the labs. I don't know what it is, I feel right there. When I was at community college we had a Biohazard II lab and we were taught all practicals during lab time and then we were told to identify bacteria and we plated them out and I was just having the time of my life and that was when I decided to go into pathogens and microbiology, maybe just having something to do with my hands and my mind.
Fourteen of the students commented that their favorite part of college related to high, or improved grades, both overall or in specific courses. Some students also described pride in carrying out projects that had lasting impact. For example, Larson said: I have done a lot of work to try to get the older buildings on campus restored. I am also leading the creation of a virtual tour on our campus. You will be able to scan a QR code and you will get a history of the building.

Personal and institutional factors that challenged successful learning in college
The students also discussed a range of factors and skills that presented challenges to their successful learning. These included academic areas in which they struggled, personal traits with organization, time management and motivation, as well as social issues. They also described practices by instructors that made learning more difficult, as well as institutional support services that might have been helpful but were not received. Some of the students also specifically shared their ideas about ways that colleges could improve the experiences of 2e/ASD students.

Personal academic challenges
The most common area of academic challenge described by the respondents were courses related to science, math or statistics, a sentiment expressed by 23 students. For example, some described math as a challenge, or as difficult, while others said that it was "abysmal", or "awful." Asher stated simply that "math a horrible struggle". Levi explained, "math doesn't make sense to me. I'm taking problem solving right now and it's things that other people get quickly take me the whole class to understand.".
Ten students stated that courses that focus on reading or writing were the most challenging areas for them. Jacob summarized these concerns with two reflections: Writing I despise, I cannot stand doing essays. The way they are, academic writing is so much more than necessary, I just want to put down my argument and that's it. It feels like a pain … Reading, I didn't realize how awful I am, my reading comprehension is good, but the speed at which I read and I'm required to do too much. I usually just fill the holes using insight, I don't do the required readings for some classes, it's too much.

Non-academic personal factors and skills
The respondents described several personal factors and skills that created challenges to learning, most often issues with time management and organization, noted by 13 students. Avery explained: I think calculus is a pretty good example, I got a D in that last term, that's the only class I didn't pass. I would just say there was a lot of independent studying required, and for me when there's not a due date I can see with other due dates, I forget to do it, then I don't end up studying enough. Jacob explained that a problem area for him is "time management because when I'm not doing work, I'm building up anxiety because I'm not working but I find it hard to focus when I am.".
Jacob's quote also connects to his personal mental health concerns, an area also indicated by 11 students. These included issues with anxiety, with three students describing using techniques such as overeating, overdrinking, or skin picking. Sasha described her experiences with anxiety, saying "in a summer program, it was a programming class where I had to learn how to code-I had a panic attack and had to drop it. I never took another programming class." Likewise, Sam said "I'm not very good at math, so if I have a lot of math to do then if I know I won't be good at it and then I'll get paralyzed and then it'll build up until I fail.".
Lack of motivation was also noted by six respondents as a factor that impeded academic success, particularly in courses that were outside of the students' major or area of interest. Jacob stated that he struggles "when I have to learn something that doesn't interest me, it's next to impossible. I failed this class that I tried so hard to study for and it wasn't enough." Likewise, Molly said "if I am not interested in education, I don't pay attention. I get obsessed with things that I am interested in.".

Social challenges
Nineteen of the respondents commented that they experienced challenges socially, both in making friends generally and in developing romantic relationships. While some respondents used words or phrases such as "challenging", "abysmal", or "it's been a nightmare" Joseph said simply "On a scale of 1-10, I'd give you a zero." Several explained that they are working on these challenges and believed they had made some progress. Jackson said, "I have the on-line friends but no friends here. I am taking 18 credits-I have no time. I need to have friends here. I tried one, fencing, but it took too much time." Melissa described that "socially it is way better than high school but making friends has been a LOT of work for me. It takes so much time for me to understand the social stuff" while Adam stated "the struggle is constant.".

Instructor practices that create challenges to success in learning
When asked what things make learning in college more difficult for them, 23 of the respondents described inaccessible course materials or the faculty members' instructional practices. Several linked inaccessibility to a lack of notes, online materials, and courses where an instructor only lectured without supporting visual materials. This also linked to how instructors lectured, as Chris explained that learning is challenging when "they don't give you notes. They don't explain things well -they stand there and write on the white board. Some of them have accents and I can't understand them. These teachers can't teach well and things are not clear." Likewise, Adam commented that "some teachers are too smart for the class and they don't transform it to another language. They teach the class like you already know the material.".
Other students described that the challenges presented in courses that are not organized clearly or have unclear instructions. Jackson summarized this thought, stating that learning is challenging "when they are too vague with instructions-no clear instructions. Lack of structure. I need structure. I do like some flexibility but I need structure. I have no idea about timing if it is not clear or structured.".
The pacing of instruction was also mentioned as a challenge by eight students, typically in regard to a course moving too quickly. Andrew noted "I have a teacher that gives an exam with 6 chapters to study. There was a short amount of time with a lot of content, this caused an overload and we need more time to process things." Likewise, Kevin shared that "I'm taking a class where they assign two projects a week. I've only at best gotten one of the projects in on time.".

Discussion and areas for future research
Understanding the lived experiences of college students with disabilities is a critical step in improving the instruction and services that they access (Fleming et al., 2017;Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2017). Research is limited on college students with ASD in general (Barnhill, 2016;Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2017), and even more rare on academically talented, or 2e/ASD students. Therefore, this study sought to understand the perspectives of a large sample of 2e/ASD students from a range of very competitive to highly competitive postsecondary institutions in the United States who persevered in college. The results indicated that a combination of personal and institutional factors impacted the students' learning and their perceptions of what was successful and what was challenging.
Individually, the students applied an inherent set of interests and skills to their college learning experiences. Several discussed their love of learning, and their ability to delve deeply into subjects that they were passionate about and the ability to focus on these areas in an independent way in college. These opportunities enabled students to focus on content they love and to persevere until they achieved. As noted, several students described their pride in grades received or significant accomplishments as one of their favorite parts of college. These findings echo prior research (e.g., Barnhill, 2016;Gurbuz et al., 2018).
The students identified both strengths and weaknesses across a range of academic areas, with most discussing their skills in reading and writing as a primary reason for their academic success. Notably however, many expressed frustrations and/or lower achievement in math and science courses. Stereotypes exist regarding the advanced mathematical skills of people with ASD (Brown et al., 2019), however in a summary of existing research, Peklari (2019) reported heterogeneity in this skill, finding that in general, autistic students have typical math skills. The results of the present study would support, using student selfreport, that advanced math skills in all or even most 2e/ASD students is indeed a stereotypical vision of these students.
Prior research has pointed out mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression, as challenges faced by college students with ASD (Cai & Richdale, 2015;Gardner, 2020;Hillier et al., 2017;Van Hees et al., 2014). Indeed, six members of the current sample specifically identified concerns with anxiety, panic incidences, or depression, and others described how concerns with mental health issues can lead to work perseveration. These concerns resulted in increased anxiety, which in turn may have contributed to the time management challenges that students present. While executive functioning skills, and in particular, time management skills are often noted as areas of concern for ASD students, educators should also consider and explore to what extent anxiety may be considered the root cause of the more visible deficit in work production.
Sixteen of the respondents described a variety of ways that they deal with and address their physical and mental health. As noted, physical exercise, mediation and breathing exercises, reading, watching videos, and finding one's own space were described as helpful to their stable mental health. The interviews for this study took place prior to, or just after the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in campus shutdowns and a rapid move to remote learning. The pandemic impacted the mental health status of many college students in general, with students reporting lower levels of overall psychological well-being during the pandemic period (Network, 2020), thus this may be an important question to address in future research.
The students also discussed their social experiences, with some describing how challenging interactions with their peers can be. Others explained that by working dilligently and using strategic planning, positive social experiences can emerge and evolve as an important part of their college experience. While a few students stated that these social interactions were not difficult for them, eleven described networks or systems that they developed in a variety of ways to help them develop better social patterns. These included clubs, socializing within their living community, or being involved in group projects related to courses. These suggest an active decision by these students to seek positive social experiences as a way to improve their success in college. As noted by Reis et al. (2014), many of these students reported participation in a range of extracurricular activities in high school as being helpful in preparing them to succeed in competitive colleges. Secondary 2e/ASD students should be encouraged by school personnel and families to actively seek out such activities, bearing in mind that it might take a few attempts to find one that is the right individual fit.
Another key factor in increasing perceptions of successful learning was the role of the faculty with whom these young people studied, particularly those who demonstrated a passion for their subject area, as well as understanding and empathy towards their students. Several students described that one of their favorite parts of college was creating connections with faculty who are subject area experts that facilitate opportunities for deep dives into learning. Several students, unfortunately, also described struggling to receive appropriate and approved accommodations from instructors. Ashley described the importance of instructors gaining better understanding of student needs, using the following example: I think a lot of professors just say 'oh Ashley doesn't want to participate today', but it's difficult for me. Just having people be more aware of what my needs may be or what is accessible to students with ASD.
As with the case noted above related to anxiety (often a hidden behavior) influencing time management and work completion (observable behaviors), student non-participation in class activities may be the result of hidden factors that the student choses to not share or may not be easily able to articulate. Faculty at both the secondary and postsecondary levels could assist students by incorporating elements of universal design into their course design and delivery. The present students appreciated faculty who use such techniques, including providing notes in advance, presenting content via multiple modalities, and allowing flexibility in how students demonstrate their understanding of content.
As noted, students also discussed the importance of disability specific accommodations, and being able to work with an individual counselor. This was described as a means to help handle issues with anxiety or to help keep track of required work. However, some of the students described the accommodations or services that they might have benefited from but didn't receive, often because they didn't request them. Given that 1/3 of a national sample of students with disabilities who received support in high school did not self-disclose in college (Newman & Madaus, 2015), additional research would be useful to determine if students who express these academic needs may simply not understand how to access these supports because of poor self-advocacy skills (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2017), concern or fear about self-disclosure (Wehmeyer, 2019), or doubts that they have the skills to succeed without them.

Limitations
Limitations exist in this study, including the recruitment of our sample, as participants volunteered to be interviewed, and as a group, may be more motivated and socially able than other 2e/ASD students. They also all attended, or graduated from highly selective universities, therefore, their experiences may be different than 2e/ASD students who attend less selective or smaller institutions. All interview data were selfreported and therefore may include inaccuracies. Other limitations include the volume of data, resulting in time-consuming analysis and interpretation. In this study, over 300 pages of interview data was generated, but the creation of data matrices and frequency tables guided our analysis. Research quality in qualitative studies is dependent on the skills of the researchers and can be influenced by the researcher's personal biases, which is why three researchers participated in conducting interviews, coding data, and identifying findings and themes. Also, all researchers had prior, extensive experience in qualitative research methods. Despite these limitations, this study offers the field the largest group of interviews of students who are 2e/ASD reported in the professional literature.

Summary and implications
This qualitative study explored the personal perceptions and institutional factors that facilitated both academic success and challenges in college this sample of 40 academically talented college students with autism spectrum disorder (2e/ASD) who were enrolled in highly competitive colleges and universities. Some of the findings in the study contradicted previous perceptions of this group, such as their strong skills in STEM areas. Indeed, the majority of our participants selfreported good or excellent reading and writing skills, but that they struggled with mathematics. The most common area of academic challenge described by our participants were courses related to science, math or statistics, a sentiment expressed by more than half the sample (23 students), with several describing their mathematical academic math experiences as "abysmal" or "awful." Advisors and professors working with this group need to understand that for some of these very intelligent students with ASD, strong math interest and competence may be more of a perception than a reality.
The personal trait that most enabled the students to be successful in college was a driving passion for learning, described by 26 of the 40 students. Half of the participants were motivated to succeed academically by the independence college offers, as well the flexibility to take advantage of a range of opportunities, and the development of their personal autonomy. The majority of the participants indicated that faculty members' instructional practices were their greatest barriers to learning, including inaccessible course materials and the absence of universal design practices (Follette Story, 1998). Strong universal design techniques, such as stating the goals of a class, offering audio and digital texts, providing several options and choices for assignments and assessment, and providing regular and consistent feedback during the class, instead of an exam at the end of the class could improve the experiences of these students. Some researchers who study academically talented students have suggested the use of strength-based opportunities for this population and the current research study suggests that this idea has merit, as the majority of students described their academic success as benefitting from a driving passion for learning (Baum, Schader, & Hébert, 2014;Renzulli & Reis, 2014). If college and university advisors can use their knowledge of students' strengths, cognitive profiles, interests, and talents to engage them in at least one or two classes that students may love, benefits may ensue. In addition to feeling a passion for learning, most of the students in our study enjoyed the independence college offers, being in charge of one's own schedule, the flexibility to explore a range of opportunities, and the development of their personal autonomy and growth. Many of them were involved in extra-curricular activities that enabled them to benefit from positive social networks and activities. Encouraging these types of college experiences could be highly beneficial for this group of students.
The students in our study also described the value of a range of supports provided by the institution, generally in the area of disability services, but some of these were differentiated, based on need. The need for these more personalized services has been noted by  who also found a need for more individualized supports, as opposed to those generally provided for every student with a disability. Indeed, some services should be focused on interests and strengths, as noted in this study and suggested by other 2e research .
In addition to extended time, our participants also benefited from the knowledge of and use of relaxation techniques including deep breathing, meditation, listening to music or watching videos, and finding space to free themselves of stress. Also noted was their use of varying types of personal organization and time management skills that were different and unique, as based on their individual needs. The importance and value of being able to work individually with professionals, such as disability advisors, academic advisors, and psychologists, was also noted by these young people. Opportunities to develop students' advanced abilities and interests must also be noted, as their talent development and passion for learning is an essential, non-negotiable component of any college program for these learners.