On the common of descent of neurology, psychiatry and anthropology

It is little appreciated not only how closely linked are the disciplines of neurology, psychiatry, and anthropology but even more so the degree to which they share a “ common ancestry ” . This paper briefly reviews the definition and historical origins of each area of study to then begin to illustrate how their “ genealogies ” overlap. This illustration is by way of a sampling of the many key figures who contributed to the rise of not just neurology, psychiatry or anthropology but of all three disciplines. That is, a selective review is undertaken of paragons whose careers bridged medicine, neuropsychiatry, and anthropology. A sampling from among the dozens who have made major contributions to spanning these disciplines illuminates the significant extent of their co-mingled intellectual ancestry. This series is akin to a data table of necessarily concise biographical vignettes – past scholars with some or full medical training who also advanced both anthropology and neuropsychiatry as these disciplines grew into intellectual maturity. Each is, in a sense, a data point that bolsters the overarching thesis that the intellectual history of these disciplines have shared ancestry. Thus, even this preliminary and topical survey of a few past “ exemplars ” underscores the importance of this unique intellectual siblingship. Moreover, there is now a profusion of living scholars who add fulsomely to what might be deemed this ‘trilateral marriage ’ of anthropology, psychiatry, and neurology. A compilation of more contemporary contributors is well worthy of a future review that expands from this first consideration. This initial work is meant to engender more robust scholarship that better elucidates and, thereby, enriches and enlivens further work while also uncovering new avenues of deeper insight, notably as to the “ conceptual and heuristic progression ” of evolutionary neurosciences with respect to the normative and pathologic.


Paper
Homo sum.Humaninil a me alienumputo.(I am a human.Nothing of humanity is alien to me).The Self-Tormentor by Terence ~77CE

Preface
As an undergraduate planning to attend medical school, I was summoned to meet a Yale Pre-Medical Advisor.He expressed concern that I had not registered with the office whereupon I explained -to his bafflement -that I meant to go to medical school but was not a "premed" (which then was and perhaps still is rarely a term of endearment).I hastily added I would be happy to register with the Yale Pre-Medical Advisory Office.He then noted with furrowed brow that my declared major was anthropology and intoned that the Yale Pre-Medical Advisory Office strongly encouraged students aspiring to careers in medicine study a relevant subject.He then suggested molecular biology or biochemistry.I replied those were certainly worthy subjects but that I planned to become a psychiatrist.He replied by way of a wince.I then offered that anthropology, being as it is the study of humans in their phylogenetic, ontogenetic, physical, social, cultural, linguistic, and religious dimensions seemed to me germane to nearly any specialty of medicine, notably psychiatry.I recall then closing with the comment medicineespecially psychiatryin essence was the study of pathological anthropology, wherein one or more of these key dimensions of any human was perturbed.
As a now semi-retired neuropsychiatrist and anthropologist, I am gratified to see the fields are increasingly synergistic and that, in America at least, anthropology is now among the top courses for students aspiring to careers in medicine.With that, I welcome here the opportunity to elaborate remarks made some years ago in my Inaugural Address as President of the American Neuropsychiatric Association (these had long languished due to my duties at increasing levels of health sciences education and health systems management).These old inaugural remarks briefly defined the disciplines of neurology, psychiatry, and anthropology with picaresque observations as to the development of each before turning to something of an honor roll of historical figures no longer among us who were active in both medicine, via psychiatry or neurology, as well as anthropology.This revived and expanded review lightly outlines some, but by no means all, the luminaries who contributed across these disciplines and, thereby, helped begin to meld them synergistically.Given the past times and modes, all are men and most are Anglo-American.The present work follows the same structure as my old address but further formalizes and expands upon it.
So then, first basic discipline definitions, there after follows a necessarily abbreviated review of some among the surprising number of key figures who bridged these disciplines.

Discipline definitions and origins
Neurology (from Greek νεῦρον, neuron, "nerve"; and -λογία, '-logia', "discourse in or study of") is the medical specialty devoted to the study and treatment of nervous system disorders.That neurology dates to prehistoric times is evident in the trepanated human skulls with osteological proof of lengthy post-operative survival.This fact is of interest to neurology and medicine, as well as anthropology.It constitutes our first and incontrovertible proof of common disciplines perhaps to the late Pleistocenea prior geological epoch!This common descent of anthropology, neurology, and psychiatrydisciplines only recognized and named in the past 200 yearswas evident in later phases of early human history as recorded in writings such as: The Edwin Smith Papyrus (an ancient Egyptian treatise on trauma surgery, including some of a neurological nature); The medicine of the Vedic period of ancient India (notably the Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita, which discusses both symptoms and possible treatments of epilepsy); The slightly later ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (who wrote on brain surgery and natural causes of epilepsy); Other Greeks who dissected the nervous system including Aristotle (though he misunderstood the function of brain, he did accurately distinguish cerebrum from cerebellum); The later Romans (primarily Galen who dissected neural system of humans and a range of other animal species, most interestingly the apes).
However, neurology as an academic discipline did not begin until the 16th century with Thomas Willis.Willis introduced the terms 'psychologia' and 'neurologia' and developed a complete neuropsychiatric concept.Some two centuries thereafter the discipline separated to a greater or lesser extent from its sibling field, psychiatry.
Psychiatry (from Greek psych-: mind {SOUL};-iatry: study of disease -iātrikos: disease, -iāsthai: to heal … coined by physician Johann Christian Reil in 1808 (Marneros, 2008) is the medical specialty devoted to study and treatment of disorders of the soul-affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual.
Psychiatry, as such, formed as a discipline in the 19th century but there were clear precursors.Plato offered an early yet remarkably modern schema of a tripartite human soul with the psyche composed of: (1) a part driven by instinctual gratification; (2) a part that strives for group status, and (3) a rational part with powers of conscious reason.Most notoriously, then-best practices were codified in what is generally regarded as the first Western psychiatric text, Kramer's Malleus Maleficarum, 'Hammer of Malefactresses ' (Kramer, 1486).With this, the Inquisition was given Papal endorsement to scourge witchesmany, if not most of whom would have been today diagnosed as suffering from a range of psychiatric and, indeed, neuropsychiatric disorders.
(inter alia, I recall as an intern in Boston admitting to McLean Hospital a manic patient whose family history on the North Shore of Boston ran back to the last witch burned in Salem … as church records later confirmed. Anthropology (from Greek Anthropos (ἄνθρωπος), "man", and-logia (-λογία), "discourse in or study of" … coined in 1501 by German philosopher Magnus Hundt (Hundt, 1501).Anthropology is primarily an Enlightenment discipline, though it clearly shares many origins with natural sciences, humanities, and social sciences.This is in a line running back to Pliny the Elder's encyclopedic Naturalis Historiae (ACE~77) in which he collated nearly all available sources.These included his own proto-anthropological idiosyncratic ethnographic 'field work' notes of travels to and experience of diversely different cultures.
In 1593 Harvey first denoted in English the natural science of humanity, "anthropology", the first of the "ologies" (Harvey, 1593).Immanuel Kant is not widely remembered as an anthropologist, but he wrote the first major treatise of the discipline, his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (Kant, 1798).He also organized the first scholarly course in anthropology in 1772 and delivered it annually long thereafter.It is even less known that Kant's anthropological account included a quite cogent taxonomy of mental disorder.This parsed various disorders by way of their alteration of, respectively, faculties of cognition, feeling, and desire.Kant also offered views on the causes, preventions, and treatments of mental disorders.
Anthropology emerged as a key successor to Natural History as the latter lumbered onto eventual intellectual extinction amid the Age of Enlightenment.Europeans began systematic study of human behavior, the known varieties of which were increasing rapidly from the 15th century.Waves of European exploration encountered ever more peoples and cultures.Eventually, programs of ethnographic study originated in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrators.Moreover, such remote outposts were often bereft of adequate medical care so there was a blurring between the roles of early colonial officer, field scientist (a/k/a anthropologist), and medic.Persons working in such settings often had interests and practical expertise in both medicine and natural science which they elaborated in the context of 'day jobs' in colonial administration.

A selection of exemplars bridging neurology, psychiatry and anthropology
This initial mission of reconnaissance is meant to fundamentally underscore the key point of shared ancestry among anthropology, psychiatry, and neurology.The following series of biographical vignettes is necessarily abbreviated for a perspectival review article.Full elaboration would expand the present work well beyond the capacity of a perspectival review article, likely into a full monograph, larger book, or even a series of books.
Rather, it is perhaps best to regard this series as akin to a data table of 'findings' -significant past scholars with full or some medical trainingand an exceptional few, without -who also advanced anthropology, neurology and psychiatry as these disciplines grew into intellectual maturity.Each of these necessarily concise biographical vignettes is, in a sense, a data point.
Together, these data points are primarily meant not to be a thorough analysis of the contributions of each individual scholar but instead to bolster the overarching thesis that the intellectual history of these disciplines have shared ancestry.
Where to begin a wideif succinctreview of paragons whose careers bridged neurology, psychiatry and anthropology?
Immanuel Kant (1724Kant ( -1804) ) that German philosopher and predominant Enlightenment thinker.Given his broad influence spanning nearly all of domains of human inquiry, an exception is made for his lack of any formal medical studies.His late Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View explores diverse aspects of cause and effect in human behavior (Kant, 1798).He details biological and psychological capacity for individuals to adapt to and comprehend life experience via the external senses in addition to a variety of mental states from inebriation to sleep, among others.
Erasmus Robert Darwin (1731Darwin ( -1802) ) was of the British Darwin--Wedgwood familywith grandsons Charles Darwin and Francis Galton and a prominent physician who declined an invitation from George III to serve as Physician to the King.A prime mover of the Midlands Enlightenment, he also was a natural philosopher, physiologist, inventor, and poet.His poems subsumed much natural history, notably evolution and the inter-relatedness of life in all its forms.His most prominent scientific treatise, Zoonomia (1794-1796), posited a system of pathology as well as a section on 'Generation' that anticipated views Lamarck would later systematize (Darwin, 1794).As such, he augured in the modern theory of evolution as more famously and accurately propounded by his grandson.
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (1744de Lamarck ( -1829)), often known simply as Lamarck, was a French naturalist biologist, academic, and soldier.He is quite well known for his idea that biological evolution occurred and proceeded as a natural law, though his mechanisms are now largely discredited except concerning the modern field of epigenetic inheritance.Less well known is that Lamarck studied medicine for four years only to give it up under his elder brother's persuasion, but his grounding in medicine directly helped shape his evolutionary ideas (Lamarck, 1795).
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752Blumenbach ( -1840) ) was a renowned German physician, naturalist, and anthropologist often referred to as one of the founders of physiology and physical anthropology.His influential work On the Natural Variety of Mankind published in 1775 laid the groundwork for the study of human diversity and established the concept of the unity of the human species (Blumenbach, 1828).Blumenbach contributed significantly to the development of the natural sciences in the 18th and 19th centuries.Though his work only tangentially approached neuropsychiatry, he directly influenced three early British physicians who also helped shape early evolutionary concepts from 1813-1819: Wells, Prichard, and Lawrence.Prichard and Lawrence dedicated their works to Blumenbach.All were familiar with Erasmus Darwin, Malthus, and Lamarck; they rejected Lamarck's soft heredity.Each grasped bits of Darwin's theory but none the entirety nor much further developed and defined.
William Charles Wells (1757-1817) was the elder of three Blumenbach proteges and, perhaps, the most effective with evolutionary concepts.Born in South Carolina, he later moved to England to make major contributions in medicine, physics, and natural history.His pioneering work on blood oxygenation and respiratory processes endure as his most prominent.In his 1798 influential paper, Two Essays: One Upon Single Vision with Two Eyes and the Other on Dew, he put forth the concept of "natural selection" well before Charles Darwin (Green, 1957).His investigations of adaptation and selection were a basis for later theories of evolution.
Sir William Lawrence (1783-1867) was a celebrated English surgeon and anatomist with extensive contributions to medical science and surgical practices in the early 19th century who also served as President of the Royal College of Surgeons of London and Serjeant Surgeon to the Queen.However, his transition to respectability was only gradual.Early in his career, he published two books of lectures with pre-Darwinian concepts on human nature and, effectively, on evolution, while the second, in 1819, scandalized; the Lord Chancellor ruled it blasphemous (Mudford, 1968).
James Cowles Prichard (1786-1848) was a British physician and ethnologist with diverse interests ranging from Egyptology to physical anthropology to psychiatry.His Researches into the Physical History of Mankind referenced evolution.From 1845, Prichard served prominently as a Medical Commissioner in Lunacy and coined the term "senile dementia".At the time of his death, he was president of the Ethnological Society and a Fellow of the Royal Society.With Blumenbach a key influence, he addressed human variation while emphasizing racial differences were heritable and indirectly suggested human origins sprang from Africa.He also published two influential works -A Treatise on Diseases of the Nervous System in 1822 (pt.I), and then in 1835 his Treatise on Insanity and Other Disorders Affecting the Mind, in which he proposed the existence of moral insanity (Pritchard, 1813).
James Parkinson (1755Parkinson ( -1824) ) was an English surgeon best known for his 1817 work An Essay on the Shaking Palsy, but he also was an apothecary, geologist, paleontologist, and political activist.He championed legal protection for the mentally ill, as well as their doctors and families.Later in life, Parkinson's interests shifted from medicine to the emerging fields paleontology and geology.His Organic Remains of a Former World published in 1804 is often regarded as the first foray toward a scientific account of fossils and from 1811, he had papers in the first, second, and fifth volumes of the Transactions of the Geological Society of London (Parkinson, 1804).
Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand Duchenne de Boulogne (1806-1875), Duchenne was a French neurologist who greatly advanced the science of electrophysiology and ushered in the era of modern neurology.Duchenne received his medical Baccalauréat at age 19 from the University of Douai and then trained under several distinguished Parisian physicians.Beyond his towering work in neurology, he researched how facial muscles produce expressions by triggering muscular contractions with electrical probes and recording the resulting expressions with the newly invented camera.Duchenne's extensive correspondences with Darwin were highly influential as the latter wrote The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Duchenne, 1871).This was so essential that the evolutionist borrowed photographs directly from Duchenne.
Charles Robert Darwin (1809Darwin ( -1882) ) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist renowned for his singular contributions to evolutionary biology.He began medical studies at the University of Edinburgh but his keen interest in the natural sciences led him to neglect his medical courses to eventually propound perhaps the most decisive thesis in the history of biology: On the Origin of Species (Darwin, 1859).But had he not written Origin both, and indeed, either his The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex or The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872) remain foundational works in the realms of both anthropology and neuroscience (Darwin, 1871(Darwin, , 1872)).
Herbert Spencer (1820Spencer ( -1903) ) was an English autodidact polymath though not a physician per se but his work as a philosopher, sociologist, andespeciallybiologist anthropologist and psychologist warrant his inclusion herein.His first book, Social Statics (1851) was influential in the 19th century, but it is his second, Principles of Psychology published in 1855, which explored the physiological basis for psychology which is today more read.Spencer first conveyed an evolutionary perspective in his essay, 'Progress: Its Law and Cause' in 1857; this later formed the basis of First Principles of a New System of Philosophy (1862) and Principles of Biology (1864), that proposed pangenesis as a quasi-gene theory with physiological units of heredity akin to Darwin's later concept of gemmules and he also coined the complicated expression "survival of the fittest" (Spencer, 1851).
Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (1821-1902) was a prominent German physician, pathologist, and anthropologist widely credited as one of the most influential figures in the history of medicine and pathology.He grew interested in anthropology from 1865, studying pile dwellings in northern Germany.In 1869, he co-founded the German Anthropological Association, then later carried out archeological excavations in Germany and beyond.Interestingly, though, he mistook the discovery of the first Neanderthal skull (in 1856) as a deformation of the braincase of an anatomically modern human.In 1870, he founded the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory which was influential in coordinating and intensifying German archaeological research.As president, Virchow frequently contributed to and co-edited the society's main publication, Journal of Ethnology.He is also regarded as a founder of Public Health and Social Medicine (Boak, 1921).
Sir Francis Galton (1822Galton ( -1911)): Sir Francis Galton was an influential English polymath, anthropologist, statistician and pioneer in several disciplines.He attended Cambridge and then started a medical program in London.But upon the death of his wealthy father, his inheritance allowed him to forego medical studies and travel with expeditions in unexplored regions of Africa that won him election to the Royal Society.He is considered a founder of modern anthropology who conducted extensive research on human heredity and introduced statistical methods to the study of human populations.He also introduced eugenics in his belief selective breeding would enhance the human gene pool.He formed the basis of psychometrics with a focus on human behavior and intelligence, psychological tests as well as research on mental faculties, such as memory, sensory perception, and reaction time (Galton, 1853(Galton, , 1869)).
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823Wallace ( -1913) ) though not trained as a physician, merits inclusion as a major British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, and biologist who made contributions to medicine and psychology.Best known for his independent postulate of evolution through natural selectionwhich he graciously urged Darwin to publish and which they presented jointly in 1858 -his contributions, essentially phylogeny writ large, helped others elucidate disease ecology while his observations of biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics contributed to both ecology and epidemiology and even yet inform public health strategies.In psychology, he explored consciousness, intelligence, and the origins of human behavior.However, his later interests in spiritualism and non-material origin of human mental faculties strained his scientific his reputation (Wallace, 1905).
Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880) was a French physician, anatomist, and anthropologist.He is best known for his research on Broca's area involved in speech production.But significantly, he also helped establish the discipline of anthropologyin 1859, he organized the Society of Anthropology of Paris.In 1872, then founded the Revue d'anthropologie, and in 1876, the Institute of Anthropology (Broca, 1863).
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895) was an English biologist and anthropologist who specialized in comparative anatomy.Largely an autodidact like Spencer, Huxley began study at Charing Cross Hospital and at twenty passed his First MB examination at the University of London, winning gold medals in anatomy and physiology.However, he did not sit for the Second MB final exams and thus did not qualify for a medical degree.His standing and impact is well known in scholarly circles and popularly he was known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution (Mitchel, 1900).
Adolf Philipp Wilhelm Bastian (1826Bastian ( -1905) ) was a 19th-century a scientist known for his influence on the origins of ethnography, anthropology, and psychology as disciplines.He attended several universities and heard lectures by Rudolf Virchow which spurred his interest in the emerging field of 'ethnology' even as he began medical studies toward his MD from Prague in 1850.Then he began to see the world in eight years as a ship's doctor.These and later travels spawned a wealth of publications.His Elementargedanke directly influenced Jung's theory of archetypes (Bastian, 1860).With Virchow, he organized the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory in 1869.Then in 1873, he was a founder and first director of the Berlin Ethnological Museum with a sprawling collection of ethnographic artifacts.He supervised a young Franz Boas who himself went on to be the "father of American anthropology".
Sir William Henry Flower (1831-1899) was an English surgeon, museum curator, and comparative anatomist, who became a leading authority on mammals and especially on the primate brain.He conducted research on the brain and sense organs of apes, shedding light on similarities and differences between humans and our primate relatives (Fowler, 1898).He supported Thomas Henry Huxley in an important controversy with Richard Owen about the human brain and eventually succeeded Owen as Director of the Natural History Museum in London.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832Wundt ( -1920) ) graduated from Heidelberg with an MD in 1856 and by 1864 he was Associate Professor of Anthropology and Medical Psychology with a published textbook on human physiology.His Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology (1864) had a profound impact on understanding human behavior and cognition and marks him as a founder of modern psychiatry and psychology.His contributions to anthropology, though less direct, were significant as his scientific rigor and observational methods greatly spurred such empirical approaches in anthropology and medicine (Bringmann et al., 1975).
Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (1834Haeckel ( -1919) ) was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher, physician, professor, marine biologist, and artist.He studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, taking his MD in 1857.He turned away from medicine upon contact with clinical service and subsequently met Lyell, Huxley, and Darwin.He was among the first to promote the notion that psychology is a branch of physiology.His embryology textbook Anthropogenie introduced the famous (now deemed largely incorrect) concept that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny (Haeckel, 1866).
John Hughlings Jackson (1835-1911) was a founder of modern neurology who made innovative contributions to understanding brain function and neurological disorders.He thought deeply about the evolved structure of the brain, with "dissolution", as found in many neurological diseases, being the unravelling of evolution.Herbert Spencer impressed him with concepts on evolution and psychology that Hughlings Jackson realized were pertinent to nervous system function and disease.The two corresponded for over 37 years as Hughlings Jackson formed a hierarchical model of neural evolution, whereby new orders of behavioral controlultimately the conscious mindare created out of simpler elements that remains highly influential even today (Berrios, 2001).
Henry Maudsley (1835Maudsley ( -1918) was Britain's lead psychiatrist, Professor of Medical Jurisprudence at University College London, and acquaintance of major Victorian intellectuals such as Charles Darwin.A Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, he gave the Gulstonian Lectures in 1870, on Body and Mind (Maudsley, 1871).These lectures were studied carefully by and influenced Darwin as he wrote The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin, 1872).
Cesare Lombroso (1835Lombroso ( -1909) ) was an Italian criminologist and physician famous for his contributions to the fields of criminology, anthropology, and neuropsychiatry.He is considered one of the pioneers of criminal anthropology and believed most criminals were born as such and that criminality could be determined by physical traits (Lombroso, 1898).This work also delved into neuropsychiatric link of crime and mental disorders, arguing some criminals had abnormal psychological conditions that contributed to their criminal acts.
Sir James Crichton-Browne (1840-1938) was a prominent Scottish psychiatrist, neurologist, and eugenicist who studied Medicine at Edinburgh, taking an MD in 1862.He is known for studies on mental illness due to brain injury and for his advancement of public mental health policy.But among many other accomplishments, he was a key collaborator of Darwin on The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin, 1872), which he greatly influenced via their extensive exchange of letters and his innovative work in neuropsychiatric photography (Pearn, 2001).
Richard Fridolin Joseph Freiherr Krafft von Festenberg auf Frohnberg, genannt von Ebing (1840Ebing ( -1902)), Krafft-Ebbing was a German psychiatrist.After he passed the state examination in 1863 Summa cum Laude with his thesis on Sensory Delusions and earned his MD from Heidelberg, he became acquainted with Wilhelm Griesinger's brain anatomical studies in Zurich.Among his many publications, notable and germane are his Lerbuch der Psychiatrie or Textbook of Psychiatry (von Krafft-Ebing, 1879) and his most famous work Psychopathia Sexualis (von Krafft-Ebing, 1886).As the pioneering and preeminent sexologist of the nineteenth century, Krafft-Ebing resonates directly with Darwin, perhaps especially with respect to sexual selection and its pathologies.
Carl Wernicke (1848Wernicke ( -1905) ) was a distinguished German neurologist and psychiatrist best known for his significant contributions to understanding language and speech disorders, particularly in relation to brain lesions.He is renowned for describing a language disorder now known as Wernicke's aphasia.His work on aphasia and language localization was a crucial step in the development of evolutionary neuropsychology and how different brain regions contribute to various cognitive functions.He studied both psychiatric disorders and brain diseases such as encephalitis and multiple sclerosis (Wernicke, 1876).Unfortunately, his life was cut short, but despite his relatively brief career, his discoveries have had a lasting impact in the fields of neurology, psychiatry and anthropology.
Samuel-Jean Pozzi (1846-1918) was a French surgeon and gynecologist.While his primary contributions were in the field of medicine and surgery, his research and observations on the human body and reproductive system have direct implications for both anthropology and neuropsychiatry.His anatomical studies and surgical techniques contributed to understanding of human physiology and the brain's relationship to various evolved bodily functions (Miller, 2006).
George John Romanes (1848Romanes ( -1894) ) was an English biologist interested in animal behavior and human psychology who made significant contributions to the fields of evolutionary biology, anthropology, and neuropsychiatry.He studied Natural Sciences then Medicine at Cambridge, though his medical course was truncated by a bout of typhoid.He then conducted research on animal intelligence and instincts, drawing parallels between animal and human behavior.His work contributed to the understanding of human evolution and the study of comparative psychology to comprehend the neurological basis of behavior and cognition (Romanes, 1883).Romanes was a protégé of Darwin who considered him his most promising intellectual heir before he died while entering his prime.
Emil Wilhelm Georg Magnus Kraepelin (1856Kraepelin ( -1926) ) was a German psychiatrist who began his medical studies in 1874 at the University of Leipzig and completed them at the University of Würzburg (1877-78).He is well known as the principal innovator of modern psychiatric nosology, but his pioneering studies in comparative sociocultural psychiatry, by which he meant to prove the theory of "degeneration" are far less known.He was a leader in the systematic study of culture-dependent psychopathology by way of several complex international expeditions.His first excursion, to Southeast Asia, begat his ethnopsychology ("Voelkerpsychologie") (Bonhoeffer, 1926).His eagerness for further field work was impeded by World War I but he later studied Afro-American, American Indian, and Latin American patients in institutions in the United States, Mexico, and Cuba in 1925.Despite his role as a progenitor of biological psychiatry, he attributed much psychopathology to ethnic-cultural characteristics or social conditions, i.e., the pathoplastic influences of cultural and social factors which is a basis of modern social and transcultural psychiatry (Kraepelin, 1987).
Sigismund Schlomo Freud (1856Freud ( -1939) ) was an Austrian neurologist and famed as the founder of psychoanalysis.Freud earned his MD from the University of Vienna in 1881.The evolutionary foundation of his monumental project in psychoanalysis is not widely appreciated but he is increasingly regarded as an inherently evolutionary psychopathologist heavily influenced by proto-Darwinian principles.Works such as Totem and Taboo (1912-13) (Freud, 1919) and Civilization and Its Discontents (Freud, 1930) overtly engage Darwin's ideas regarding how social forces influenced evolution of behavior and its pathologies.But it his recovered early manuscript A Phylogenetic Phantasy, that explicitly adopts phylogenetic mechanisms as ontogeny runs into a bedrock of biology; it explores if modern neuroses and psychoses might have ancient roots in the prehistory of mankind as evolutionarily adapted species repertoires respond to environmental change or traumatic events (Freud, 1987).
Franz Boas (1858Boas ( -1942) ) was a pioneering figure in anthropology, renowned for groundbreaking work in cultural studies, linguistics, and physical anthropology.Born in Germany, Boas immigrated to the United States and greatly helped shape the discipline of anthropology in North America.He rejected the then-prevalent scientific racism advocating instead cultural relativismthat cultures should be understood primarily within their own contexts.Boas, though not a physicia n, emphasized factors such as culture, environment, and social conditions significantly impact individual health, and consequently, medical practices should attend to these factors.Thus, he lay the foundation for medical anthropology at the intersections of culture, society, and health (Boas, 2001).
William Halse Rivers (1864Rivers ( -1922) ) was an English psychiatrist, neurologist, anthropologist, and ethnologist known for treatment of First World War officers suffering shell shock.Educated at the University of London, he went on to a prominent and productive academic career in psychiatry and neurology.But his later field work Torres Islanders and the Todas of southern India stand to this day as pivotal contributions to ethnology.Moreover, upon his return to academia in England he investigated protopathic and epicritic innervation from an explicitly evolutionary perspective.Later, his two-volume History of Melanesian Society (1914), posited a diffusionist view of the cultural development in the south-west Pacific (Rivers, 1864(Rivers, -1922)).He led the Anthropological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1911), and then served as President of both The Folklore Society (1920) and the Royal Anthropological Institute (1921)(1922).
Sir Arthur Keith (1866Keith ( -1955) ) was a Scottish physician, anatomist and anthropologist who made significant contributions to the study of human evolution.He obtained a Bachelor of Medicine at the University of Aberdeen in 1888 and studied Anatomy at University College London while becoming a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England at a young age.He researched fossil evidence and comparative anatomy, which helped establish evolutionary connections between ancient human ancestors and modern humans.While his focus was on physical anthropology, he indirectly contributed to the understanding of human brain evolution and the emergence of cognitive abilities in early hominids, with direct implications for neuropsychiatry (Keith, 1950).
Aleš Hrdlička (1869-1943) was a Czech-American physician-anthropologist who made significant contributions to physical anthropology and related fields.In 1889 he took up studies at Eclectic Medical College and then continued at Homeopathic College in New York, then sat for exams in Baltimore in 1894.He conducted extensive research on human evolution, particularly the physical characteristics and skeletal remains of human populations while making important contributions to the study of human origins and migration.His insights into the phenotypy of human brain development were early buttresses for evolutionary basis of neuropsychiatry (Hrdlicka, 1919).
Gaëtan Henri Alfred Edouard Léon Marie Gatian de Clérambault , Clerambault was a French psychiatrist famed for forensic studies, notably erotomania.After studying law and medicine, he was assistant physician at the special infirmary for the criminally insane, Prefecture de Police, an institution he headed from 1920.Yet few know that beyond his substantial duties and formal psychiatric studies, he was esteemed as a cultural anthropologist.This grew from his stint in the Moroccan army which he joined as an avid colonialist passionate about ethnology, particularly the art of Arab women.Indeed, his early and exceptional research of Arab tribal costumes included his collection of clothed wooden figurines that currently are in the Museum of Man in Paris (Fretet, 1942).
Karl Theodor Jaspers (1883-1969) was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher highly influential in theology, psychiatry, and philosophy.He briefly studied law in Heidelberg Munich but began medical studies in 1902 with a thesis on criminology and a MD from the University of Heidelberg.Beyond his major contributions to psychiatry as a formal discipline, his interests moved on to phenomenology, transcendence, and religiosity.With expansive and continuing influence, his philosophy balances a fine dialectic of religious and anthropological perspectives, even though he puzzlingly denied evolutionary theory could directly contribute to our understanding of the human mind (Wallraff, 2015).
Bronisław Malinowski (1884Malinowski ( -1942) ) though without formal medical training, he was a student of the pioneering psychiatrist, Wundt, and made significant contributions to anthropology, psychology, and medicine.This was particularly through his pioneering work in ethnography, notably his "participant-observation" method of fieldwork.This revolutionized ethnographic research by emphasizing immersion in the culture of study.His work also influenced psychology, especially with his insights as to how culture shapes human behavior and cognition.He emphasized understanding cultural context in the study of psychological phenomena, which challenged ethnocentric views prevalent at the time.In medicine, his contributions were less direct but nonetheless significant.His holistic approach to studying human societies provided insights into how social, cultural, and biological factors melded to shape health and well-being.This perspective continues to inform medical anthropology, public health research, healthcare practices, and policies (Malinowski, 1947).
Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt (1885-1964) was a German neurologist and neuropathologist who, after medical qualification, became a ship's surgeon in the Pacific whose study of local crafts, linguistics contributed to cultural anthropology.He is best known for identifying Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, a rare but fatal neurodegenerative disorder.His researches were significant contributions to anthropology, neurology, and psychiatry, notably as they provided insights into the neurological basis of disorders and their impact on human populations (Wolf and Foley, 2005).It is also noteworthy that Creutzfeldt became a Patron Member of Heinrich Himmler's Nazi SS from 1932 and though he left in 1933 some advise the eponymous disease be renamed.
Eugène Minkowski (1885Minkowski ( -1972) ) was a Polish-French who obtained his medical degree at Munich University in 1909 and went on to an expansive and storied career.In 1925 he co-founded a French psychiatric journal, L′ Évolution psychiatrique, and his integrative Neurobiologie, Moral und Religion (1963) directly influenced work in the phenomenology and anthropology of religion and moral values (Minkowski, 1936).
Karl von Frisch (1886Frisch ( -1982) ) was an Austrian ethologist known for his groundbreaking work in the fields of animal behavior, anthropology, and neuropsychiatry.He studied medicine at the University of Vienna and in Munich, but later turned to the natural sciences.His studies on animal behavior, particularly on bee communication through dances, shed light on the evolutionary aspects of communication and contributed to understanding of social behavior in animals (von Frisch, 1927).He noted parallels between animal and human societies and with implications for understanding the neural basis of behavior in both animals and humans that sparked interest in neural mechanisms underlying social interactions and cognition that ultimately won the Nobel Prize in Medicine (1973).
Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (1903Lorenz ( -1989) ) was an Austrian zoologist and ethologist, best known for his studies on animal behavior and imprinting.He began premedical study at Columbia University in 1922, but a year later continued at the University of Vienna earning his MD in 1928.During WWII he was at times deployed as a psychiatrist.His research in ethology, the study of animal behavior in natural environments, provided valuable insights into the evolutionary origins of behavior and social interactions.While Lorenz's primary contributions were in the field of ethology, his work on animal behavior and communication had implications for understanding human social behavior and the neurological basis of certain instincts and emotions in both animals and humans, making his work relevant to neuropsychiatry (Lorenz, 1973).
Ernst Walter Mayr (1904Mayr ( -2005) ) was among the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century.This was as a key figure in the development of the modern evolutionary synthesisthat conceptual revolution which unified biology by integrating Mendelian genetics, systematics, and Darwinian evolution.He also was an esteemed taxonomist, field explorer, ornithologist, philosopher of biology, and historian of science.He began medical school at the University of Greifswald but after a year changed to biological sciences.His subsequent career spanning nearly eighty years is a panoply of important insights and discoveries, ranging from ornithology, to speciation, to phenotypic expression and on into more integrative contributions (Mayr, 1991).
John Bowlby (1907Bowlby ( -1990) ) was a psychiatrist who developed attachment theory with an emphasis on the importance of human evolution, particularly as it resonates with features inherited from the environment of evolutionary adaptation.He studied psychology and pre-clinical sciences at Trinity College, Cambridge, and qualified in medicine at University College London.He conferred with evolutionary luminaries such as Hinde, Lorenz, Julian Huxley, and Tinbergen as he developed new explanatory hypotheses, based in evolutionary and ethological principles that were much in opposition to views of contemporary psychoanalysts for what is now known as human attachment behavior (Bowlby, 1991).
Paul MacLean (1913MacLean ( -2007) ) was a psychiatrist trained at Yale and Washington before establishing the Laboratory of Brain Evolution and Behavior at the US National Institute of Mental Health.He led this program from 1971 to 1985 after which he was Scientist Emeritus active until age 99.His evolutionary triune brain model of three brain assemblages in one -the reptilian complex, the limbic system (a term he coined), and the neocortexhas been deemed the most prominent concept in neuroscience since World War Two.Though subject to critiques, themselves criticized, a proper understanding of his model is again influential (MacLean, 1990;Panksepp, 2002;Pogliano, 2017).
John Scott Price (1930Price ( -2017) ) was a British psychiatrist and early proponent of the heuristics of evolutionary concepts in psychiatry, both clinical and theoretical.He was educated at Oxford, attained his MD, and qualified in psychiatry but soon focused on research regarding psychiatric effects of social hierarchy and animal models in psychiatry while ever active as a clinician.His 1967 Lancet letter, Hypothesis: The dominance hierarchy and the evolution of mental illness, a picaresque yet concise presentation of evolutionary inferences drawn from observations while feeding his chickens, sparked many subsequent psychiatrists to consider evolutionary factors in mental health and disease (Price, 1967).
Gerald Augustus Cory, Jr, (1933-2024) was a senior American counter-intelligence officer, computer executive, university president, and pioneer in neuroeconomics.Cory was a special student fellow in clinical and research psychiatry as an underdraduate at the University of South Carolina before a remarkable career in the US Army and Air Force.The Air Force sponsored his interdisciplinary PhD at Stanford integrating evolutionary neuroscience, game theory, and economics.First applying this to top secret military projects, later as a civilian he developed comprehensive models of consilient social brain interaction tracing intricate relationships -both normal and abnormal -between individual and collective behavior, market dynamics, and institutional culture (Wilson and Cory, 2008)

Discussion
This perspectival review sought to illustrate that anthropology, neurology and psychiatry, though now distinct disciplines, arose from intellectual threads intertwined by a range of early scholars who tailored scientific advancements largely in the 19th century.Many patterns were identified in part as a response to societal change due to industrialization, colonization, urbanization, and other modernities even as all were also derived from insights uniquey propounded by these and other exemplars.
The discipline of anthropology was largely born out of the European Enlightenment with its interest in human diversity.This flourished as colonial expansion led to encounters with non-Western cultures.Early anthropologists such as Franz Boas sought to comprehend and detail diverse cultural practices and belief systems of indigenous peoples around the world.
Meanwhile, neurology, and later its sibling discipline, psychiatry, were emerging with intentions to delineate abnormalities of behavior and neural organization, perhaps prompted by the increasing burden of mental health disorders in societies undergoing rapid industrialization, i.e., phenotypic elasticity.Key persons such as Emil Kraepelin and Sigmund Freud were pioneers exploring the complexities of the human mind, brain, and behavior toward more systematic study and treatment of mental illness.However, from a modern perspective, both had an anomalous understanding of the theory of evolution by emphasizing such aspects as Lamarckian inheritance and group selection, either one is now discarded as wrong or misleading.
The emanations and interactions of anthropology and psychiatry from their shared foundations was quite vigorous in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when anthropologists began to study the cultural aspects of mental illness even as psychiatrists took interest in anthropological themes including both evolution and cross-cultural ethnologies.Research, as conducted by the likes of Bronisław Malinowski, illuminated how culture influences perceptions of mental health and guides therapeutics even as the likes of George Romanes elucidated the bases of comparative neurobiology and psychology.
Moreover, the disciplines have in common an interest in the individual within broader social and cultural determinants.That is, anthropologists, neurologists, and psychiatrists alike consider how cultural norms, values, and social structures can better illuminate understanding human behavior and mental health.
On the other hand, and despite their shared origins, anthropology, neurology and psychiatry often diverge both in method and with respect to theoretical background.Historically, anthropologyespecially sociocultural anthropologytends to a culturally relativistic approach whereas neurology and psychiatry generally lean toward a more empirically biomedical perspective.
Nevertheless, the junctions of anthropology, neurology, and psychiatry continue to be fertile ground for interdisciplinary research and collaboration, offering valuable insights into the complexities of human nature, culture, and mental well-being.Evolutionary anthropology, neurology and psychiatry correspond in several ways, particularly in understanding the evolution of human behavior and mental health.
These disciplines all utilize an evolutionary framework, explicitly or implicitly.Evolutionary anthropology explores how human behavior, cognition, and emotions have evolved over time in response to selective pressures.Neurology and psychiatry increasingly incorporate evolutionary principles to clarify roots and phenomenology of neuropsychopathology, including how certain traits adaptive in ancestral environments may have become maladaptive in modern phenotypic reactions.Neurologists and psychiatrists now tend to converge on evolutionary explanations for neuromental disorders for insights into the origins, prevalence, and treatment from an evolutionary perspective.
These disciplines note the importance of cross-cultural perspectives in understanding human behavior and mental health.Anthropology investigates cultural variations in behavior and cognition whereas neurology and psychiatry consider the impact of ontogenic and biomedical factors in the manifestation and treatment of neuropsychopathology.
Accelerating momentum in research bridges evolutionary anthropology and neuropsychiatry.Scholars collaborate in studies of the evolutionary bases of neuropsychiatric disorders, the role of social and environmental factors in mental health, and the implications of evolutionary theory for psychiatric treatment and prevention.
Anthropology can enhance the development of culturally adapted interventions tailored to the more precise needs and preferences of diverse populations.Such attention to cultural beliefs and practices can shape treatments methods for enhanced engagement, adherence, and outcomes for culturally diverse neuropsychiatric patients and help promote greater sociocultural acceptance of therapeutics.
Optimally, evolutionary anthropology and neuropsychiatry offer convergent, integrative, highly resonant insights into human behavior and health.Moreover, such insights are driven by evolutionary tenets that better elucidate the complex interactions between biology, sociocultural influences, and environment with respect to both health and neuropsychiatric disease as well as research and treatment.Indeed, such "hybrid vigor" is evidenced by the foregoing series of biographical vignettes of scholars with some or complete medical training who advanced both anthropology and neuropsychiatry as these disciplines grew into intellectual maturity.

Conclusion
The brief recap of the definitions and origins of neurology, psychiatry and anthropology as illustrated by some among the surprising number who have made major contributions across these disciplines highlights the degree of their common scholarly descent.
It is useful to distinguish those with a sound understanding of evolutionsuch as Darwin, Huxley, and Mayrfrom otherssuch as Freud and Kraepelin and many of their discipleswho endorsed but miscontrue the theory of evolution.It is, likewise, useful to note those who minimized what evolution can reveal about human nature, such as Jaspers and Virchow.
This review passes lightly over some darker links between anthropology and neurology, psychiatry, e.g., eugenicists with their proposed medical interventions (mainly based on application of inaccurate concepts, such as group selection).But a full assessment of these dark threads would entail at least another entire review article if not further exegeses.Thus, tracing the common descent of neurology, psychiatry and anthropology is ultimately a much more complex process than this concise survey can presently elucidate.Moreover, it is one not without problems as generated, in part, by those who propounded incorrect interpretations of evolution and misapplied them with intended but often errant anthropological and clinical consequences.
Here, synthetic approaches are helpful, such as Gilbert (Gilbert, 1989, Gilbert andSimos, 2022) who discusses various conceptual and methodological issues relevant to links between evolutionary neuroscience, psychology, and psychiatry.This and similar efforts to develop novel transdisciplinary frameworks help foster new dialogues between neuroscience, psychiatry, and philosophy that further integrate how brain organization can differentiate between neuronal and psychodynamic states in a manner of interest to both anthropology and neuropsychiatry.
Moreover, the present reviewan initial abbreviated survey of just some of the past "exemplars" -accentuates the magnitude of this unique intellectual siblingship.Of course, there is now an abundance of living scholars contributing robustly to the 'trilateral marriage' of anthropology, psychiatry, and neurology.But again, inclusion of so many more living "exemplars" is beyond the scope of the present work even as it is well worthy of a future contribution that expands from this first consideration.Likewise, another worthy contribution would be the further elaboration that further weaves together the clinical and research implications of all these syncretic strandsbroad, deep, and textured as they are.
The prospects of the future interaction between anthropology, neurology, and psychiatry promise to advance our understanding of both human behavior and impairments of brain and mind.Collaborations among anthropologists and neuropsychiatrists can augment research methodologies and clinical practices that lead to more culturally competent and effective therapies in diverse societies as well as more tailored biomedical interventions.These interdisciplinary synergies may not only enhance understanding of and care for myriad complex neuropsychopathology but may also promote disease prevention and foster holistic well-being spanning the globe.
It is hoped this initial foray may engender more vigorous scholarship to explicate and, so, enhance and invigorate studies of such a synergistic interface also reveal new paths for more complete understanding, particularly regarding the of evolutionary neurosciences and their "conceptual and heuristic evolution".

Statement
Professor Wilson, in preparing this work, used ChatGPT to collate basic biographical background material for selected notables further summarized in the paper and used DALLE 2 to generate three graphic images on the theme of evolutionary anthropology and neuropsychiatry.After using these tools, he reviewed, augmented, and edited content as needed, taking full responsibility for the content of the publication.
It is otherwise pertinent to note the absence of women or persons of color in this retrospective of 'exemplars' now passed.This substantially reflects sociocultural dynamics of prior times but more encouraging is that the modern era now sees many scholars of under-represented demography amply contributing to anthropology and neuropsychiatry.Likewise, at least a few and perhaps many here cited, had ideas that present sensibilities may find disturbing.A critical review of such is beyond the scope or aims of this paper, which merely attempts to begin to chronicle dual contributors to these sibling disciplines.