Sorption and transport of sulfamethazine in agricultural soils amended with invasive-plant-derived biochar
Introduction
Pharmaceutical residues, which are recognized as emerging contaminants, are frequently detected in treated wastewater, surface water, and groundwater worldwide (Hu et al., 2010). Sulfonamides (SAs) are one of the most frequently used antibiotic classes in the veterinary industry (Kwon et al., 2011). They are reported to be the second most frequently used group of antibiotics in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, accounting for 11–23% of the total veterinary antibiotic usage (Thiele-Bruhn, 2003), and in the U.S., SAs are the fourth largest group of antibacterials used (AHI, 2002). Hence, SAs may be detected in most environmental samples (Hu et al., 2010) as it has been ubiquitously found in the high ng/L (sometimes reaching 10,000 ng/L) range in discharges from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP), and in the low ng/L (<100 ng/L) range in rivers and groundwater (Kim et al., 2011). Among different SAs in the veterinary industry, sulfamethazine (SMZ) is the most commonly used drug, and thus is frequently detected in the environment due to its high mobility and low sorptivity (Haller et al., 2002).
Sulfonamides (SAs) are characterized by relatively unreactive soil surface interactions, and hence, show a high mobility in soils (Kim et al., 2011, Kim et al., 2010b, Thiele-Bruhn, 2003). Recent studies have reported that the sorption of SMZ depends strongly on soil pH, organic matter content, clay content, cation exchange capacity and ionic strength (Gao and Pedersen, 2005, Haham et al., 2012, Kahle and Stamm, 2007, Thiele-Bruhn et al., 2004). The high polarity, low octanol–water distribution coefficients (Kow), low chelating ability and high water solubility of SMZ, all contribute to its low affinity to soils (Thiele-Bruhn et al., 2004). Many studies have been conducted recently to determine the fate of SMZ in different soils (Kim et al., 2010a, Kurwadkar et al., 2007, Thiele-Bruhn et al., 2004). Because of low affinity of SMZ to soil mineral particles, it is important to find an effective soil amendment for the management of SMZ-contaminated soil and water.
Due to its heavy usage, it has been found in manure, effluent from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as well as leachate from animal burial sites (Ok et al., 2011). Therefore, once released into the soil environment, SMZ may be leached into groundwater and flow with water (Ok et al., 2011). Sulfamethazine has been found in groundwater samples in many places, including Korea, Germany, China, Spain, Taiwan and the U.S., at concentrations up to 0.67 μg/L (Kim et al., 2011). The presence of SMZ such as other sulfonamides in the environment may lead to the development and spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria (Heuer et al., 2011). It may also result in increased phytotoxicity to plants, however, only a few studies have been conducted with this regard (Dolliver et al., 2007).
Biochar, which is derived from the thermal decomposition of carbon-rich biomass, is being widely used in agriculture as a soil amendment as it can effectively increase soil fertility and create a carbon sink to mitigate environmental pollution of many compounds which are associated with global warming (Awad et al., 2012). Biochar has been found to be an effective adsorbent for various contaminants. A number of investigations have revealed the potential of biochar as a low-cost adsorbent for the control of pollutant migration in soils, applicable to both organic and inorganic pollutants (Ahmad et al., 2012a, Tsang et al., 2007). However, among the different species of pollutants studied previously, only a few have focused on the removal of pharmaceuticals by soil, particularly using biochar under different pH values and pollutant loadings (Yao et al., 2012).
Since biochars can be produced from many kinds of feedstock, invasive plant species could be a potentially effective kind, and the collection and utilization of such materials have additional ecosystem benefits. Burcucumber (Sicyos angulatus L.) is a wide-spread invasive species in Korea, and it has been regarded as one of the most invasive species (Kil et al., 2006). This plant has harmful impacts on not only agriculture but also the natural ecosystems. Due to its severe threat to the country's rich biodiversity, the Korea Ministry of Environment has adopted a series of regulations for its control, and also called for contributions of the general public to eliminate the plant (Ahmad et al., 2014). In this light, our study intends to make use of the burcucumber biomass as a feedstock to produce biochars. The overarching objective of this work was to understand the adsorption and transport behavior of SMZ in biochar-amended and untreated soils attempting to reduce contaminant leaching from wastewater used for soil irrigation, manure applied soils or animal burial sites. The specific objectives were to: (1) determine the sorption and distribution coefficients of SMZ in the simulated biochar-amended soil environment; (2) determine the involvement of different ionic forms of SMZ in sorption; and (3) determine the effects of the texture of biochar-amended soil on transport of SMZ.
Section snippets
Soil samples, biochar and chemicals
The two soils were collected from agricultural fields in Bonghwa-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do Province and Jeongseon-gun, Gangwon Province, Korea. The soils were sieved through a 2-mm mesh, dried in an oven overnight and then sealed in a container prior to use. The physico-chemical characteristics of the two experimental soils were tested based on standard methods. Burcucumber plants were collected and firstly dried in the sun for one week and later in a fan-forced oven at 60 °C for 24 h. The dried
Soil properties
Soil samples were analyzed for selected physical and chemical characteristics (Table 1). Soil S1 and soil S2 were categorized as loamy sand (84.1% sand and 6.2% silt) and sandy loam (64.1% sand and 26.1% silt), respectively. Both soils were slightly acidic. Contrasting differences were observed between two soils for available P2O5, total N and for soil organic carbon (Table 1). Soil organic carbon content of the soil S2 (29.4 g/kg) is about 7 times higher than the soil S1.
Characteristics of biochars
The results of the
Conclusions
Retention and transport of antibiotic SMZ in the biochar-amended soil was explored by batch and column experiments, regarding the characteristics of the experimental soils and biochars, the different forms of the target pollutant SMZ and the biochar sorbent application rate. The invasive-plant-derived biochars were characterized as highly aromatic and carbonized with low H/C and O/C ratios and demonstrated a high potential for SMZ sorption. The two untreated soils used in this study showed very
Acknowledgments
This work is fully supported by the Korea Ministry of Environment as Geo-Advanced Innovative Action Project (G112-00056-0004-0). Instrumental analyses were supported by the Korea Basic Science Institute, the Environmental Research Institute and the Central Laboratory of Kangwon National University, Korea. The Ministry of Technology and Research in Sri Lanka partially supported the first author.
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