Psychological and behavioral outcomes of social media-induced fear of missing out at the workplace

The intense proliferation of social media platforms into every facet of human lives has engaged researchers’ attention towards understanding their adverse influences, referred to as the dark side of social media (DoSM) in the evolving literature. A relatively unexplored context in this regard is employees’ personal use of social media during work hours and its impact on work-related outcomes. Since using social media during work hours can have implications for work performance and productivity, the lack of research in the area needs to be addressed by scholars sooner rather than later. Specifically, it is important to understand the drivers and outcomes of such behaviour. We have thus conceptualized a theoretical model based on the associations among individual tendencies (exhibitionism and voyeurism), fear of missing out (FoMO), and individual-level psychological (compulsive use of social media) and behavioral (work performance decrement and procrastination) outcomes of social media use during work hours. Grounded in the stressor-strain-outcomes (SSO) framework, the hypothesized associations were tested by a path analysis of 312 responses collected from individuals working in the United States. The results confirmed significant relationships between individual tendencies and FoMO, as well as psychological and behavioural outcomes. The findings contribute to the evolving literature around DoSM in the workplace and offer useful and practical insights.


Introduction
The fear of missing out (FoMO) has garnered significant attention from scholars in the recent past. This phenomenon commonly refers to an individual's apprehensions or concerns about missing socially or personally gratifying experiences that others might be having. Although FoMO was initially conceptualized in the offline or real-world context (Przybylski et al., 2013), the concept has found widespread applicability in regard to social media use. FoMO has been associated with the dark side of social media (DoSM) (e.g., Talwar et al., 2019), which refers to the posited negative implications of social media use on individual wellbeing, such as in terms of a heightened experience of loneliness (Appel et al., 2020), a posited higher use of these platforms by narcissists (James et al., 2017), and strategic self-presentation vis-à-vis an individual's true self (Jang et al., 2018). Subsequently, researchers have called for further exploration of the effect that phenomena associated with DoSM, such as FoMO and digital platforms, have on the lives of individuals James et al., 2017;Malik et al., 2020).
The past seven years have seen a steadfast increase in research examining FoMO (Tandon et al., 2021), which can be attributed to its evidentiary relationship with online vulnerability (Thompson et al., 2021) and problematic social media use behaviours, such as fake news and misinformation sharing (Talwar et al., 2019), sleep disturbances , and social media fatigue (Malik et al., 2020). Moreover, scholars have found social media use and FoMO to be adversely associated with users' physical and mental well-being. In terms of diminished mental well-being, for instance, FoMO has beendetermined to be related to hedonic well-being (Berezan et al., 2020), depression , and envy (Yin et al., 2019). Similarly, scholars have found limited evidence supporting the association of FoMO with negative physical symptoms like headaches (Baker et al., 2016) as well as activities that may harm individuals' physical safety, such as distracted walking in urban locales (Appel et al., 2019).
Despite the existing body of knowledge, our understanding of FoMO is still constrained by some persisting gaps in the social media literature. First, there is limited information about FoMO's association with individual personality traits and tendencies. Scholars have primarily tested this association for the Big Five personality traits (Milyavskaya et al., 2018;Rozgonjuk et al., 2020b;Stead & Bibby, 2017), although the results of these tests have been inconsistent. For instance, while Stead and Bibby (2017) found a negative correlation between FoMO and the personality traits of emotional stability and conscientiousness, Milyavskaya et al. (2018) found FoMO to be unrelated to personality traits. Other personality dimensions, such as the Dark Triad (Stiff, 2019) and exhibitionism (Mäntymäki & Islam, 2016), to name a few, have remained relatively less investigated by contrast.
Second, the research has primarily focused on understanding the relationship of FoMO with personal psychological outcomes, such as the compulsive use of social media (Blackwell et al., 2017) and social media fatigue (Malik et al., 2020), as well as behavioural outcomes like problematic sleep , in the context of adolescents and university students. In comparison, a limited number of studies have focused on working professionals (e.g., Tandon et al., 2020). Subsequently, we have lesser knowledge of how FoMO affects the psychological responses of these individuals. Additionally, there is limited understanding regarding how FoMO influences working professionals' work-related behavioural responses or outcomes, such as employee performance and motivation (Budnick et al., 2020). We argue that this is a critical gap because personal social media and smartphone use have significantly increased during working hours (Farivar & Richardson, 2020), especially since the onset of the coronavirus lockdowns (COVID-19, Kemp, 2020).
Third, there has been limited investigation of FoMO as a direct antecedent or predictor (Błachnio & Przepiórka, 2018). For instance, scholars have mainly tested the indirect influence of FoMO for adverse outcomes associated with problematic social media use (e.g., Tandon et al., 2020). Moreover, there is conflicting information about the directionality of these associations  and the pathways through which FoMO translates into adverse outcomes, especially in the workplace, which is an under-investigated context of FoMOoriented research. It is critical to investigate these associations in the workplace context as the resulting knowledge can facilitate the development of interventions to help organizations manage FoMO-driven social media use during work hours.
We argue that these visible gaps indicate that FoMO remains an under-researched phenomenon in the work-environment context and suggest the need to closely examine the mechanism-of-effect or pathways through which FoMO influences working individuals. Prior studies have supported our contention, with scholars similarly calling for deeper investigations to expand the current understanding of FoMO along with its antecedents and consequences (Chai et al., 2019). The objective of our study is to address these gaps by raising and answering three research questions (RQs):

RQ1.
What is the nature of the association between individual tendencies (exhibitionism & voyeurism) and FoMO? RQ2. How is FoMO associated with the psychological outcome of compulsive use of social media during work hours for working professionals? RQ3. How is the FoMO-driven psychological outcome of compulsive use of social media associated with the behavioural outcomes of procrastination and work performance decrement for working professionals?
The proposed associations are conceptualized using the theoretical insights of the stressor-strain-outcome (SSO) framework, wherein the individual tendencies of exhibitionism and voyeurism represent the stressor, FoMO represents the strain, and individual-level manifestations, i.e., psychological (compulsive use of social media) and behavioral (work performance decrement and procrastination) represent the outcomes. We addressed the three RQs and tested the proposed associations by analyzing 312 responses collected through a cross-sectional survey of adult social media users (full-time working professionals) from the United States of America (US).
The novelty of our study rests on three key contributions. First, we look at hitherto under-studied individual traits/tendencies (exhibitionism and voyeurism) as internal stressors that aggravate FoMO and influence individuals' psychological and behavioural outcomes at the workplace. Second, we focus on working adults, which is a lesserinvestigated respondent group in social media research. Third, we advance the current knowledge by looking at a dual level of responses, i. e., psychological and behavioural. We expect FoMO to be positively associated with compulsive use of social media (CUS) as a psychological outcome at the first level. At the second level, we study and expect a positive association of CUS with two forms of behavioral outcomes: (a) reduced work efficiency and timely response (procrastination) and (b) work performance decrement. We believe that studying a dual level of consequences or outcomes is likely to more effective in uncovering the complex dynamics by which individuals' FoMO translates into adverse work-related outcomes for them. Since prior studies have posited that the consequences of using a particular technology may be related more to the manner of their usage than the affordances of the technology itself (Chandra et al., 2012), we believe that our study would highlight how individual stressors and strains contribute to the negative outcomes experienced by social media users. To our knowledge, no prior study has concurrently examined the behavioral outcomes of CUS and FoMO, giving us a reason to contend that our findings will significantly advance the existing knowledge on FoMO.
The rest of the manuscript is structured as follows. Section Two presents the theoretical background, and Section Three details the hypothesized associations. Thereafter, we discuss the methodology followed for this study in Section Four and the data analysis results in Section Five. We discuss the findings in Section Six. Finally, in Section Seven, we present the concluding remarks, implications for theory and practice, limitations of this study, and future research areas.

Theory: Stressor-strain-outcome framework
The stressor-strain-outcome (SSO) framework ) is a popular framework in social media research that has been used to study the antecedents of social media fatigue Whelan et al., 2020) and dissatisfaction , among others outcomes. SSO has been used to study mental conditions, jobrelated stress , and the specific pre-conditions that can act as stressors for technology use (Ayyagari et al., 2011). The framework encompasses the three key aspects of (a) stressor: the behavioral and emotional (i.e., psychological) stimulants that can have a problematic impact on individuals; (b) strain: the adverse emotions or states experienced due to the stress; and (c) outcomes: the decrement in performance, productivity, and psychological and physiological functioning of the individual due to the strain .
While other theoretical frameworks like stimulus-organism-response (Jacoby, 2002) may have also been suitable, SSO was chosen to ground the study framework because it allows for the study of the link between a person and their situation on their experienced psychological strains, as well as the changes the individual adopts in their behavioral outcomes to avoid the potentially detrimental consequences these strains may cause (Malik et al., 2020). This theory is thus appropriate for our study for two reasons. First, it allows us to conduct a nuanced examination of how stressors influence the organism by creating a distinct strain that translates into adverse outcomes. It is important to study such stressors and strains in the context of social media due to its ubiquitous use in human lives and to explore the detrimental consequences that such usage has on the well-being of social media users Wu et al., 2020). Second, this theory has been previously utilized to successfully and effectively examine the negative influence of social media use on users' psychological states and behaviors Malik et al., 2020). Given this theory's origin in the field of occupational health psychology (Malik et al., 2020), we believe that this theory can successfully explain the negative consequences of social media use in the context of employees.
Our study hypothesizes that the individual tendencies of exhibitionism and voyeurism would act as stressors that influence a user's experienced FoMO (strain), thereby leading to both adverse psychological and behavioral outcomes. A brief description of the study variables is presented in Table 1, and the hypothesized relationships are graphically shown in Fig. 1.

Stressors: Exhibitionism and voyeurism
Prior studies have found dark personality traits like narcissism and exhibitionism (Perugini & Solano, 2021) to be associated with problematic social media use (Andreassen et al., 2017), compulsive behavior, e.g., compulsive buying (Okazaki et al., 2019), and adverse effects on mental well-being (Perugini & Solano, 2021). However, there is limited understanding of how such dark personality traits and individual tendencies induce problematic social media use (Kircaburun et al., 2018). Our study considers two such traits-exhibitionism and voyeurism-which can be are argued to be 'two sides of the same coin' (Doster, 2013). Exhibitionism is a narcissistic tendency associated with the dark triad of personality, while voyeurism is argued to be mutually dependent on exhibitionism (Mäntymäki & Islam, 2016). We posit these variables as internal stressors as they are inherently related to the need to belong (Kefi et al., 2019) and reflect individual gratifications, albeit negative ones, derived from social media use, as suggested by Mäntymäki and Islam (2016). Our argument is in line with prior studies that have studied psychological traits and tendencies as stressors, for example, boredom proneness (Whelan et al., 2020) and the tendency to engage in social comparison (Malik et al., 2020). Moreover, studies have called for greater exploration of the individual factors, like personality traits, that act as stressors motivating social media use (Perugini & Solano, 2021;Xiao & Mou, 2019) and that determine personal experiences on these platforms. Thus, we believe that our examination of exhibitionism and voyeurism as individual stressors that induce the strain of FoMO in social media users is a significant contribution to the current body of knowledge.

Strain: FoMO
FoMO is primarily conceptualized as a form of psychopathology related to anxiety (Elhai et al., 2020c) that is caused due to perceived deficits in psychosocial needs, such as the need to belong and social relatedness (Berezan et al., 2020;Przybylski et al., 2013;Roberts & David, 2020). FoMO may create a distinct strain that affects the internal state of an individual, i.e., the 'organism', by inducing them to stay in touch (or interact with) and keep abreast of the information continually shared by their social media contacts (Malik et al., 2020;Roberts & David, 2020). The strain of maintaining a continual connection and the fear of missing potentially relevant information can thus result in adverse outcomes. Recent studies have posited FoMO to be a multidimensional construct. Wegmann et al. (2017), for example, found it to have two distinct forms: state FoMO (resulting from online interactions) and trait FoMO (a dispositional state or individual characteristic). Our study conceptualizes FoMO as an organismic state and a distinct strain resulting from interactions and content sharing on social media platforms (Wegmann et al., 2017).
Multiple studies have found FoMO to be associated with negative consequences related to the DoSM, including problematic sleep , misinformation sharing (Talwar et al., 2019), decreased well-being (Reer et al., 2019), and problematic social media use (Franchina et al., 2018). However, most studies have examined FoMO as an indirect influence, such as a mediator (Elhai et al., 2020c;Reer et al., 2019). There is thus a need to explore the association of FoMO with other psychological constructs (Elhai et al., 2020c) and outcomes reflecting addictive tendencies further (Blackwell et al., 2017;Tandon et al., 2020). We expect that our investigation of how FoMO enacts influence as a distinct strain for individual social media users, as caused by the personal tendencies of exhibitionism and voyeurism, will contribute to the existing knowledge as a hitherto under-studied mechanism or pathway connecting individual tendencies with social media use experiences and distinct detrimental psychological and behavioral outcomes.

Outcomes: Psychological and behavioral
Although prior research has found FoMO to be associated with various psychological and behavioral outcomes, the focus has mainly rested on personal psychological effects like mental health and wellbeing-related aspects. However, there is rising interest in examining how FoMO and social media use can affect work-related outcomes, such as work/job performance, efficiency, and productivity (Budnick et al., 2020;Sakka & Ahammad, 2020). We study two levels of outcomes that An individual's perceived decrease in work or job performance due to their social media use and its associated problematic outcomes Cao et al. (2016); Kuvaas (2006) Procrastination due to social media at work The individual tendency to voluntarily delay or avoid making decisions or completing work-related tasks to engage in more pleasurable, albeit, shortterm gratifications arising from social media use during work hours Meier et al. (2016); Müller et al. (2020) may be related to problematic social media use at work. At the first level, we examine how FoMO is associated with CUS. At the second, we study how FoMO-driven CUS influences the behavioral outcomes or responses of decrements in work performance and procrastination at work. This is a novel contribution to the current knowledge, as, although studies have examined how FoMO is related to individual CUS, there has been limited research exploring its association with work-related outcomes. We explore a new pathway that could potentially explain how personal tendencies and DoSM phenomena, like FoMO, could lead to adverse work-related outcomes for individual users.

Individual tendencies and FoMO
Scholars have suggested that negative outcomes or adaptations of social media use may be contingent on the presence of negative cognitive or affective attributes (Muhammad et al., 2021). Thus, exploring darker personal tendencies like exhibitionism and voyeurism, which are relatively understudied as stressors, may extend the current understanding of the causes that promulgate individual experiences of DoSM phenomena like FoMO.

Exhibitionism and FoMO
Exhibitionism is a significant driver of social media use (Islam et al., 2019;Mäntymäki & Islam, 2016) and has been found to predict the severity of problematic social media use (Savci et al., 2020). Exhibitionism is posited as being associated with individuals' desire to seek more attention or appreciation from others (Mäntymäki & Islam, 2016;Savci et al., 2020). According to Mäntymäki and Islam (2016), exhibitionism is also related to an individual's propensity to engage in selfpresentation on social media. Consequently, such individuals can engage in higher content creation activities, such as posting selfies (Guo et al., 2018) or check-ins and enjoying witnessing others' reactions to their shared content (Savci et al., 2020). Since exhibitionism is a narcissistic tendency, we contend that exhibitionist individuals may develop FoMO about knowing others' shared content and reactions to their posts to reaffirm their perceived superiority. Błachnio and Przepiórka (2018) have also suggested that narcissists may experience FoMO in their effort to ensure the superiority of their self-presentation vis-a-vis others.
Furthermore, prior research has indicated that social media activities associated with narcissism and exhibitionism, such as self-disclosure (Guo et al., 2018;Mäntymäki & Islam, 2016) and self-promotion (Islam et al., 2019), can increase individuals' vulnerability towards adverse consequences like addictive use (Andreassen et al., 2017) and FoMO (Buglass et al., 2017). Islam et al. (2019) found exhibitionism to augment the effect of self-promotion on social media addiction, suggesting that exhibitionism can indirectly influence the compulsive use of social media. Since scholars have linked compulsive or excessive social media use to FoMO (Franchina et al., 2018;Müller et al., 2020), it is plausible to theorize the association of exhibitionism with this phenomenon. Consequently, we argue that exhibitionism might act as a stressor for individuals and influence their experience of FoMO as a distinct strain associated with social media use. While to the best of our knowledge, no a priori evidence exists for the association between exhibitionism and FoMO, we leverage the preceding discussion to propose and test the following hypothesis intuitively: H1a. Exhibitionism is positively associated with FoMO.

Voyeurism and FoMO
The use of social media for online information-seeking is becoming increasingly common. This behavior has been referred to by various terms like voyeurism and social surveillance, to name a few (Frampton & Fox, 2021). There is a rising recognition of individuals' voyeuristic tendency to obtain insights into others' lives through a passive review of their shared social media content Mäntymäki & Islam, 2016). According to scholars (Doster, 2013;Mäntymäki & Islam, 2016), the desire to get information about others' lives is a significant gratification derived from social media use and reflects voyeuristic tendencies. For instance, Stiff (2019) suggested that there is always an element of voyeurism involved with social media platforms, like Facebook, whereby users can obtain insights into others' social media lives while scrolling through their feeds/homepages. Such voyeuristic tendencies can be argued to stem from individuals' perceived deficits in the need to belong (Mäntymäki & Islam, 2016). These perceived deficits, in turn, can cause individuals to experience an uncontrollable urge to follow others' social media updates to know every detail of their lives (Kefi et al., 2019). We argue that this urge could act as a stressor for FoMO as voyeuristic inclinations could create anxiety about missing others' experiences shared on social media. To the best of our knowledge, the association of voyeurism with FoMO has not yet been studied. We thus base our argument on the existing evidence suggesting that FoMO can be associated with a perceived deficiency in meeting social relatedness needs (Elhai et al., 2020c;Przybylski et al., 2013), as these needs may be derived through voyeurism. Hence, test the following hypothesis: H1b. Voyeurism is positively associated with FoMO.

FoMO and compulsive use of social media
FoMO is primarily conceptualized as a concern or anxiety that can lead individuals to maintain a continued connection with social media platforms. Scholars have suggested that FoMO can lead to individuals maintaining a continued or even near-permanent online connection (Zhou, 2019) with digital platforms like social media (Chai et al., 2019). These individuals may avoid FoMO by engaging in excessive social media use, for example, through commenting on shared or viewed content and conversations (Malik et al., 2020). Consequently, we theorize that CUS can become a compensatory mechanism  to alleviate FoMO, i.e., their apprehensions about being excluded from the perceivably rewarding experiences shared by others (Tandon et al., 2021). Multiple studies have investigated the association of FoMO with the problematic and compulsive use of social media (e.g., Tandon A. Tandon et al. et al., 2020). For instance, Tandon et al. (2020) found FoMO to be a strong predictor for compulsive use of social media for students and young working professionals. Similarly, Blackwell et al. (2017) and Wiesner (2017) also indicated that FoMO may be a predictor for compulsive and problematic social media use. Drawing upon the prior literature discussed above, we propose the following hypothesis: H2. FoMO is positively associated with compulsive use of social media.

Compulsive use of social media and work performance decrement
There is increasing recognition that technological distractions in the workplace (Orhan et al., 2021), e.g., due to social media use and FoMO, are negatively associated with users' decreased work engagement (Orhan et al., 2021) and productivity in daily life . For instance, Rozgonjuk et al. (2020a) discussed that social media-related use disorders (e.g., WhatsApp and Facebook) due to FoMO can increase users' pre-occupation with these platforms and lead to reduced productivity. Zivnuska et al. (2019) also found social media addictions and reactions to be negatively correlated with job performance, contingent upon the mediating effect of work-family balance, burnout, and work-family conflict. Yu et al. (2018), meanwhile, used the SSO framework to reveal that excessive social media use caused overloads resulting in social media exhaustion, which then led to significant decrements in job performance. Cao and Yu (2019) also found that excessive social media use at work can lead employees to experience technology-work conflicts and psychological strain, both of which were negatively correlated with job performance. Extrapolating the findings of these studies to the present context, we argue that FoMO-driven CUS may be associated with work performance decrement. Our argument is supported by prior studies indicating that excessive social media use (Kamal et al., 2020;Yu et al., 2018) can create information and communication overload, resulting in negative implications for job performance. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis: H3a. Compulsive use of social media is positively associated with work performance decrement.

Compulsive use of social media and procrastination at work
Multiple scholars have deliberated on the critical potential association between problematic internet (Müller et al., 2020) or social media use (Meier et al., 2016) and procrastination. For example, in a recent review, Zhang and Rau (2021) discussed that the misuse of social media could result in a multitude of negative effects, including procrastination. Geng et al. (2018) found a strong and positive correlation between internet addiction and procrastination among university students, while Meier et al. (2016) determined procrastination to be strongly associated with the frequency of checking Facebook. Furthermore, Przepiorka et al. (2016) have suggested that addiction to social media platforms, like Facebook, could be related to procrastination as users pursue shortpleasurable gratifications on these platforms. Doty et al. (2020) conceptualized obsessive internet passion (derived from internet use for entertainment, idling, and social interaction) as an internal and controlled motivational drive arising from intra-personal and/or interpersonal pressures and found that it was linked to procrastination contingent on cultural context. In another recent study, Kastiya and Sharma (2020) also determined that internet addiction due to social media was positively associated with anxiety-driven procrastination among employees. Scholars have further suggested the need for future research to explore the association between social media addiction and procrastination (e.g., Przepiorka et al., 2016). These findings serve as the basis for us to anticipate that CUS may share a similar association with procrastination as internet or social media addiction. This is mainly because each of the three (i.e., CUS, internet addiction, and social media addiction) refers to an individual's compulsive tendencies to engage in problematic social media use.
To the best of our knowledge, there is limited evidence of this relationship in the workplace context. However, we believe that CUS would be significantly associated with procrastination. In addition to the studies discussed above, the theoretical tenets of the limited capacity model (Lang, 2000) also support our speculation that FoMO-driven CUS may deplete employees' cognitive resources by engaging their attention on social media-related cues, which limits their cognitive capacity to process work-related information. This limited capacity may then decrease employees' decisional and working efficiency, which, coupled with social media use-related distractions, could lead to their procrastination of work-related tasks. This argument aligns with prior studies that have shown procrastination to be related to the depletion of cognitive resources (Schnauber-Stockmann et al., 2018) and both mental and physical exhaustion (Reinecke & Hofmann, 2016). Hence, we propose the following hypothesis: H3b. Compulsive use of social media is positively associated with procrastination.

Control variables
Prior studies have reported that socio-demographic factors, such as age Reer et al., 2019) and gender (Kircaburun et al., 2018), can influence an individual's social media use and subsequent experiences. To account for the possible extraneous effect of such variables, we employed the factors of age, income, and gender as control variables in line with prior studies (e.g., Dhir et al., 2021;Tandon et al., 2020).

Questionnaire development
The study instrument was developed by adapting pre-validated scale items (Table 2) to measure responses on a five-point Likert scale (wherein one = 'strongly disagree' and five = 'strongly agree'). The socio-demographic variables of age, income, gender, educational qualification, and total work experience were measured on an ordinal scale. Lastly, we included items for a marker variable blue attitude that was also measured on a five-point Likert scale.
To test the content and face validity of the adapted scales in the instrument, we invited a panel of five experts from the fields of marketing, psychology, and information systems science. A similar approach has been followed by prior studies on social media and social media's dark side (e.g., Dhir et al., 2021). The panel members suggested modifications in the structure of seven items, which were duly incorporated. To further confirm the validity and clarity of the items, we conducted a pilot test of the survey instrument with 14 social media users recruited through Prolific Academic. These respondents were from the US, aged between 25 and 50 years, and were employed as full-time working professionals (50% males). The pilot study confirmed that the adapted items and measures were clear, easy to understand, and relevant for the present study.

Participants and data collection
The data were collected through Prolific with a Google Form-based questionnaire over the span of a week in March 2021. Prolific Academic is an online platform for recruiting respondents that has been used extensively by scholars worldwide due to its ease of use and access to a diverse cohort of respondents on the platform . The survey was conducted among respondents based in the US, as reports have indicated a rising use of social media by the working population in America during work hours for various reasons (Olmstead et al., 2016;Statista, 2020). For instance, a recent report indicated that about 29% of individuals in the USA engage in social media use while they are at work (Statista, 2020). However, there is limited understanding of the implications of such use on employee well-being and productivity (Budnick et al., 2020;Kühnel et al., 2020). Moreover, a report by Pew Research Center has indicated that such social media use may not always be for work-related reasons and that the information gained from these platforms can even influence employees' opinions of their colleagues (Olmstead et al., 2016). These reports and statistics reinforce the viability of the USA as the context of our study.
We informed the recruited respondents that participating in the survey was voluntary; their responses were completely anonymized and intended to be used for academic purposes only. We also compensated the respondents financially. We pre-screened participants based on two selection criteria: (a) full-time employment status and (b) a one-year minimum of work experience. The participants were not screened based on their work-related roles and included professionals working in upper, middle, and lower management levels as managers, supervisors, and administrative staff. We received 349 responses, of which 37 were deleted during data cleaning due to missing or incomplete information. Subsequently, 312 complete responses were taken forward for the analysis. The socio-demographic profile of the respondents is presented in Table 3.

Data analysis
We tested the proposed relationships by analyzing the data in SPSS 27 and AMOS 27 software through covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM), which has been used by recent studies on technology use . We utilized CB-SEM as the method of data analysis because: (a) our data met the multivariate and sample size requirements of CB-SEM, and (b) the hypothesized arguments were supported by theory and grounded in a well-regarded theoretical framework. Before conducting the path analysis, we assessed the validity and reliability of the adapted scales through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (Kline, 2015) and heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) analysis (Henseler et al., 2015).

Data normality and common method bias
We assessed the data for normality and multicollinearity before conducting CFA. The skewness and kurtosis values were below the prescribed limits, confirming that the data under the study followed a normal distribution. The variance inflation factor (VIF) values below five and tolerance values above 0.10 confirmed that the data did not have multicollinearity issues, as discussed by recent studies (e.g., Tandon et al., 2020;Dhir et al., 2021).
Since we used a self-report instrument to collect data for all variables, common method bias (CMB) could be a potential issue. Accordingly, we conducted Harman's (1976) single factor test, which indicated that the extracted single factor (without rotation) explained 31.99% of the total variance (below the 50% cut-off). This confirmed that the data were not affected by CMB (Podsakoff et al., 2003).
To further confirm the absence of CMB in this study, we utilized the latent marker variable of blue attitude, which measures a respondent's preference for the color blue and clothes that are blue in color. The variable has been developed mainly to test CMB (Simmering et al., 2015) and has been previously used by social science researchers (Farooq et al., 2021). The variable was not theoretically linked to the other variables in the model, and the analysis also confirmed its nonsignificant correlation with the variables in the model. Thus, the analysis indicated a very low possibility that CMB affected the data (Farooq et al., 2021).

Measurement model: Reliability and validity
The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) returned a good model fit (χ 2 /df = 1.95; CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.06). We further assessed the items for reliability and validity by examining whether they met the thresholds recommended by Hair et al. (2011) for average variance extracted (AVE, threshold value = 0.5) and composite reliability (CR, threshold value = 0.7). The values for the constructs, as presented in Table 4, met the prescribed criteria.
The study measures also met the recommended criteria for discriminant validity since the inter-construct correlation values were lower than the respective square roots of AVE for each study measure. The Maximum Shared Variance (MSV) and Average Shared Variance (ASV) values of the individual study measures were also greater than 0.5, thereby conforming to the thresholds recommended by Fornell and Larcker (1981), as presented in Table 4. To further confirm discriminant validity, we conducted an HTMT analysis, as reported in Table 5, which showed that the values were lower than the recommended threshold of 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015).

Structural model
Following CFA, we conducted a path analysis to assess the model's overall fit and test the proposed hypotheses. The results showed a good model fit (χ 2 /df = 1.83; CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.05) in comparison to the baseline fit indices. As seen from the R 2 values in Fig. 2, the model accounts for 57.5% for FoMO, 50.4% for CUS, 31.9% of the variance for work performance, and 39.6% for procrastination at work, indicating acceptable values. The path coefficients, as presented in Table 6 and Fig. 2, indicate support for six hypotheses: H1a (β = 0.60***), H1b (β = 0.29***), H2 (β = 0.71***), H3a (β = 0.71***), and H3b (β = 0.78***). We controlled the model for the confounding influence of age, income, and gender on CUS, work performance decrement, and procrastination at work due to social media use. The results indicate that the control variables have no significant influence on any of the dependent variables, which implies that the employed socio-demographic variables had no confounding effect on CUS, work performance decrement, or procrastination.

Discussion
The present study aimed at providing new insights into the antecedents and consequences (both psychological and behavioral) of FoMO for an individual employee. To achieve the study's objectives, we tested five hypotheses for direct effects, with the results revealing support for all of the proposed direct associations. Thus, the data analysis confirms that individual tendencies of exhibitionism and voyeurism act as stressors and strain the individual's psychological state, represented by FoMO, which translates into adverse psychological (CUS) and behavioral (procrastination and work performance decrement) outcomes.   Prior research had confirmed that even before COVID-19, individuals were adversely affected by problematic social media use-related experienced like social media fatigue Malik et al., 2020). However, our findings raise more significant concerns about the personal and work-related well-being of individual social media users who have been exposed significantly more to these technological platforms since the commencement of the COVID-19 quarantines and lockdowns (Kemp, 2020). To elaborate, exhibitionism (H1a) and voyeurism (H1b) are significantly associated with FoMO. The results imply that social media users' tendencies (i.e., exhibitionism and voyeurism) can effectively influence their experienced FoMO due to their desire to remain actively updated with social media communique. The findings indicate that the relationship is stronger for exhibitionism than voyeurism, indicating that the need to show-off drives FoMO more strongly than the desire to know about others. We attribute this finding to the fact that exhibitionism may encourage a more active form of content creation activities like posting content and commenting on others' posts (Roberts & David, 2020). We contend that such exhibitionism-driven active engagement would also lead users to experience higher FoMO as they may be prone to feeling higher anxiety about seeking and garnering attention among a wide audience (Savci et al., 2020). This finding is in line with prior studies, which indicate that exhibitionism-driven social media use can have significant negative effects on users' emotional well-being (Perugini & Solano, 2021) and can lead them to experience more dysfunctional social media use (Savci et al., 2020). Contrastingly, voyeurism may encourage a more passive use, such as online information-seeking and passive social media surveillance Kaur et al., 2020;Roberts & David, 2020). We believe that voyeuristic tendencies would induce social media users to engage in passive activities that would help them stay updated about their virtual groups' activities. Thus, both passive and active engagement with social media, driven by individuals' personal traits and tendencies, influences the degree of their user experiences, specifically FoMO. We believe that such users, driven by the desire to engage in social media-oriented exhibitionism and voyeurism, would feel higher anxiety, i.e., FoMO, about missing the updates and communications being exchanged on social media.
The association of FoMO with the psychological outcome of CUS (H2) is also statistically significant, indicating that working individuals may exhibit high FoMO-driven CUS to ensure that their virtual connection with social groups is maintained even during their working hours. Thus, the results imply that working professionals may feel anxious about not being continually updated on the goings-on of their social media connections (i.e., FoMO) and may thereby engage in CUS to avoid this anxiety. Since the internet is used invariably for professional reasons, individuals who experience FoMO may frequently access their personal social media accounts during work hours to avoid missing updates and thereby remain continually informed about the latest happenings on these platforms. This finding is aligned with prior studies, which have also determined that FoMO leads individuals to engage in CUS to alleviate their anxiety about missing social media updates of their online groups (e.g., Tandon et al., 2020).
The results also confirm the statistical significance of CUS's association with work performance decrement (H3a) and procrastination (H3b), implying that working professionals' excessive frequency of social media use can effectively create a detrimental effect on their professional lives. The significance of these associations suggests that working professionals who engage in CUS during work hours would be preoccupied with maintaining a constant connection with social media to ensure that they participate in all rewarding experiences being shared on these platforms. Subsequently, such individuals show reduced work efficiency (both decisional and action) and work performance decrement. Thus, our findings may be explained through the tenets of the limited capacity model (Lang, 2000), as CUS may burden an individuals' capacity to process information. Due to this burdened capacity, such users would not efficiently process work-related information and delay making decisions or executing work-related tasks. In other words, working professionals' CUS during work hours may burden their cognitive processing capacity and distract them from fulfilling their primary work tasks, leading to decreased reported work performance decrement. This finding aligns with prior studies that suggest daily social media use during work hours is a distraction that negatively impacts employees' work performance (Lee & Lee, 2018). The significant relationship between CUS and procrastination is a novel addition to the literature. It indicates that social media use during work hours can influence an individual's decision-making ability and work efficiency, which, to our knowledge, has not been examined before.
Our findings are a significant addition to the existing literature as they elucidate a pathway through which FoMO translates into negative work-related outcomes. We contend the need to explore the direct associations between FoMO, work performance decrement, and procrastination.

Conclusion, implications, limitations, and future scope
We raised and answered three RQs to delineate how individual tendencies influence FoMO and subsequently elicit adverse psychological and behavioral outcomes in working individuals who use social media during their work hours. We tested five hypotheses for main effects and found exhibitionism and voyeurism to be significant individual tendencies associated with FoMO. Next, FoMO was significantly related to CUS (i.e., psychological outcome), which, in turn, significantly influenced the negative individual-level behaviors of work performance decrement and procrastination. The findings elucidate a novel pathway through which an individual's tendencies can act as stressors to create a strain or negative social media user experience (i.e., FoMO), leading to adverse outcomes for a working professional. The results present new insights into FoMO's correlates specifically and, more generally, the DoSM to raise important implications.

Implications for theory
Based on the results, we propose five contributions and implications for the theoretical advancement of knowledge on FoMO. First, the results of our study confirm that FoMO is a critical issue that can negatively affect working professionals' work-related outcomes. This is a significant contribution to the literature as limited investigations have previously explored the role of FoMO in the workplace. The results imply the need for further examination of how deviant behaviors related to social media use and the DoSM affect the efficiency and performance of employees. This is a critical area of future investigation given the rising use of social media and enterprise social media in contemporary organizations for work-related communication, especially since the COVID-19 lockdowns began. For example, given the blurring boundaries of work-life balance, it may be beneficial to understand how FoMO relates to individuals' demands pertaining to their personal and professional lives to affect their work-related outcomes.
We contend that such academic investigations have become more critical due to the COVID-19 lockdown that has resulted in a vast majority of the working populace engaging in remote-working, thereby largely precluding the organizational monitoring of employees' internet and social media use. Prior studies have noted paradoxical outcomes of cyberloafing (i.e., personal use of the internet and social media during work hours), which are debated to be both positive (e.g., by giving employees a 'micro-break') and negative (e.g., due to a waste of organizational time and resources). Subsequently, we believe that it would be interesting to investigate whether such un-monitored employees' potential use of the internet and social media during work hours during COVID-19-associated remote-working has positive or negative implications for their work performance and efficiency.
Second, our application of the SSO framework confirms that an individual's tendencies can act as stressors and facilitators of FoMO. This finding implies the need to further examine other individual tendencies and traits, such as Machiavellianism or psychopathy, as possible personal stressors for deviant behaviors related to technology use, in general, and FoMO, in particular. We also imply the need to consider negative-valence stressors, i.e., inhibitors of social media use and FoMO in the workplace, that are relatively under-researched in the FoMO literature, such as supervisors' proximity, organizational monitoring strategies for internet use, happiness at work, and emotional stability. Moreover, our findings indicate the need to investigate the concurrent influence of both facilitating and inhibiting stressors on working professionals' tendency to engage in FoMO-driven CUS using theoretical frameworks like the Dual-factor theory (Cenfetelli, 2004). Such investigation would extend our theoretical understanding of FoMO's antecedents related to individual social media users.
Third, the findings imply that individual tendencies may influence FoMO through the type of social media use activities that users may engage in during work hours (i.e., active through exhibitionism or passive due to voyeurism). Our study implies the need to advance the current knowledge on this aspect, in alignment with recent studies that have also indicated active and passive social media use as being a significant individual difference (Roberts & David, 2020). Based on our results, we propose the need to further explore how individual tendencies may covertly or overtly influence FoMO and its allied negative experiences through the type of activities that individual users may engage in to avoid them. It may also be beneficial to investigate whether and how the COVID-19-induced lockdown has influenced individual tendencies that drive social media use. Such an investigation may reveal novel pathways through which personality traits and tendencies lead users to experience FoMO and perhaps other DoSM phenomena like social media stalking.
Fourth, by revealing the role of FoMO in affecting individual employees' procrastination and work performance decrement through CUS, we tacitly imply the need to investigate other outcomes of FoMO as a strain. For example, technostress and technology-work conflict may be potential strains that a working professional may experience due to FoMO, as well as the need to stay concurrently updated on workplacerelated and personal social group-related information. In a similar vein, the revelation of procrastination as a significant behavioral outcome of FoMO indicates the need to consider other work-related consequences that may be influenced by personal social media use during work. Examples of such indicators include emotional exhaustion (Lim & Choi, 2017), work alienation (Fedi et al., 2016), and employee creativity (Kühnel et al., 2020;Luqman et al., 2021).
Lastly, by revealing the pivotal role of FoMO in affecting psychological and behavioral outcomes for employees' work-hour use of social media, our study indicates the need to investigate other strains that could lead to such consequences. In this regard, we draw from recent studies on problematic smartphone use to suggest the consideration of nomophobia as an alternative strain and phubbing as a subsequent behavioral response that individuals may experience since smartphones are one of the primary channels for accessing social media platforms (Kemp, 2020).

Implications for practice
Lastly, our study's results support our contention that employees who engage in social media use at work for personal reasons may experience a ripple effect of adverse outcomes encompassing both psychological and behavioral aspects. We argue that it is critical to address both these forms of outcomes and uncover four key implications for practitioners. We direct our implications towards human resource (HR) managers and organizational counselors (i.e., psychologists) who can assist individual employees experiencing adverse outcomes of phenomena like FoMO and personal social media use at work.
First, our findings that personal social media use at work has implications for performance underscore the need for HR managers to pay special attention to regulate social media's personal use during work hours without alienating the employees. While the literature has discussed the role of formal control strategies for internet use at work, we argue for the need to focus more on engaging employees positively to divert their attention from social media rather than monitoring employees' social media and internet use, especially since employees may use the latter to engage in work-related searches, learning, and communication. We contend that organizations must encourage employees' positively oriented social media use since remote-working practices, such as those adopted due to the COVID-19 lockdowns, would not be conducive for executing monitoring and formal control strategies. In this context, well-placed nudges can be used to encourage the deliberate use of social media during pre-specified periods, such as lunch breaks, to ensure that employees do not feel coerced into regulating their access to social media platforms, which scholars have found to create a negative backlash (Gügerçin, 2020), such as through decreased employee loyalty. Nudges could be strategically placed posters or pop-up messages appearing on the work-stations of employees. Moreover, HR managers may encourage employees to leverage enterprise social media for conversing, which has been found to have positive implications for controlling cyberloafing behaviors (Nusrat et al., 2021).
Second, our findings imply that organizations may benefit from developing employee support programs to assist individuals who experience FoMO and engage in CUS during work hours, as it may become a precursor for other potential deviant behaviors like cyberloafing. Such deviant behaviors have been posited to affect the overall organizational productivity and waste work-related resources (Kühnel et al., 2020). Moreover, recent studies have determined that even using enterprise social media may cause significant disruptions for employees, thereby resulting in exhaustion . Such findings further highlight the critical need to address adverse outcomes related to employees' technology and social media use in the workplace. In this regard, counselors can be appointed to help employees overcome such issues. HR managers can also consider availing their organizations of professional help (e.g., from organizational psychologists) to develop interventions for addressing the individual tendencies that increase employees' inclination to engage in social media use during work hours.
Third, FoMO emerged to be a significant strain for the psychological outcome of CUS. Subsequently, we suggest that organizational counselors try to identify other workplace-related (e.g., work-life balance) or personal strains (e.g., nomophobia) that may cause employees to engage in social media use during work hours. For example, one such strain that we draw attention to is the compulsive use of personal or employerissued smartphones during professional and social interactions, that is, phubbing. Such problematic use of technological devices may also affect employees' cognitive pre-occupation, resulting in detrimental consequences for workplace relationships and performance. The knowledge of such strains may allow these counselors, in conjunction with HR managers, to develop viable and sustainable strategies to support employees in their appropriate usage of technological platforms (like social media) and devices.
Lastly, we suggest that organizations should consider implementing a peer or buddy-mentoring program to assist individuals with significant work performance decrement issues and increased procrastination towards work tasks. We contend that organizational coworkers or peers may be able to extend positive social support to the affected employees. Such peer-mentors can act as informal supervisors for individuals identified as suffering from CUS and technostress and can help these employees keep track of and achieve work-related goals and tasks. We offer this implication by drawing from the literature on cyberloafing, which has indicated that the behavior of peer coworkers can be a significant antecedent and source of learning for deviant behaviors in the workplace (Askew et al., 2019;Khansa et al., 2017).

Limitations and future scope
Three main limitations constrain our study that future studies may address. First, due to our cross-sectional and self-report survey, the data could be influenced by biases, such as social desirability bias and the retrospective recall of respondents. Furthermore, it is not possible to derive causal relationships from cross-sectional research. In the future, scholars may consider using observational studies, experiments, and longitudinal research studies to draw causal inferences while accounting for these identified biases. Second, our results are limited to a singular geography, i.e., the USA. Thus, our findings cannot be generalized to other contexts without further research. Future scholars may consider testing the same associations in the context of different countries and specific social media platforms to understand the differential influence of context on the studied associations. Moreover, future scholars may also consider using other theoretical frameworks like the technology threat avoidance theory (Liang & Xue, 2009, 2010 to investigate social media users' coping and avoidance behavior when they experience DoSM phenomena like FoMO. Such investigations would extend the current boundaries of knowledge on the drivers and inhibitors of individuals' complete or partial cessation of social media use due to the perceived negative effects of these platforms. Finally, we only considered social media-related variables in our conceptualized framework, whereas smartphone-related aspects may also be significant stressors or strain. We encourage future scholars to concurrently examine social media and smartphone use-related aspects to gain a more nuanced yet holistic insight into the detrimental impact of technology use at work or the dark side of information technology use.