Book Reviews

Swedish scholars have pursued a longstanding, lively interest in the epistles of Jude and 2 Peter. In 1962, Carl Axel Albin presented a doctoral thesis then published as Judasbrevet: Traditionen, Texten, Tolkningen (Stockholm, 1962). The text-critical aspect of the book was criticized, but the presentation of manuscripts has been appreciated and used even by Wasserman. Tord Fornberg, in his An Early Church in a Pluralistic Society (Lund, 1977), then situated 2 Peter in its hypothetical milieu and considered Jude as its source. James Starr, on the other hand, concentrated on 2 Peter 1:4, published as Sharers in Divine Nature (Stockholm, 2000). With his Rethinking the Judaism-Hellenism Dichotomy (Stockholm, 2001), Anders Gerdmar presented a historical and philological study of Jude and 2 Peter. He judged that 2 Peter was the source of Jude. I, the reviewer, commented on the rhetorical aspects of Jude and 2 Peter in Filemonbrevet, Judasbrevet och Andra Petrusbrevet (Stockholm, 2001). Wasserman’s thesis is unsurpassed in accuracy and completeness. Profiting from the manuscripts used by Albin, W. has added new manuscripts following his visits to the Alands’ Institute for New Testament Textual Research in Münster. His is now a complete collection of Judean manuscripts, even though time restraints prevented him from collating all available lectionary manuscripts. Still, W. has collated the lectionaries of Jude published in the Novum Testamentum Graecum Editio Critica Maior. While he was analyzing the lectionaries up to the 12th century, he discovered that MS 2866 is in fact the same as MS 2483. W. lists all the manuscripts of Jude on pages 106–17. W.’s dissertation is well organized into three parts. In the “Prolegomena” of part 1 he surveys previous textual research on Jude, with an outline of current scholarship. Chapter 2 presents papyrus 72 and chapter 3, papyrus 78, both insightfully annotated by W. In chapter 4 W. claims Jude as the source of 2 Peter, arguing against Gerdmar’s thesis. Part 2 is an edition of the text-critical aspects of Jude. First is a presentation of the manuscript witnesses, second a reconstruction of the initial text of Jude, and finally the apparatus itself. Here W. also provides a list of errors in the Greek manuscripts and in the Novum Testamentum Graecum Editio Critica Maior. Part 3 consists of a textual commentary, followed by a bibliography, three indexes, and 16 useful plates. W. gives the reader the information necessary for checking the reliability of his text-critical presentation of Jude. In fact, he gives accurate and complete information about most text-critical problems. Yet I do find two weaknesses that prevent him from offering reliable historical and geoTheological Studies 68 (2007)

biographies, and supplies a want in the history desideratum The industrious author, Dr Juch a work of of the corporation would he likely to derive from such a work of reference, ordered the BoU to be pnnte . c ^ take an interest iu the lives of the learned. Eor the names of mo. e than two-thirds of the individuals commemoiaUd m the volume, we should search in vain the columns of our most extensive biographical dictionaries.
While endeavouring to record as much as is essential to the history of those early physicians, Dr. Munk has with proper judgment abstained from all irrelevant matter or parade of authorities, with which a less judicious compiler would have overlaid his work. He has had to travel in many obscure by-paths of the past, and where research has proved unsuccessful, the failure has evidently proceeded from no want of pains. As the Roll will take its place hereafter with the Athence of Wood and of the Messrs. Cooper, and similar standard authorities, we note a few points that have occurred to us in perusing it, which may be serviceable in the event of a second edition. The Dr. John Craige, whose memoir occurs at p. 112, was the third son of the eminent lawyer Sir Thomas Craige, of Iliccarton, whose treatise De Feudis is one of the noblest monuments of the legal literature of Scotland. That he was a friend of the philosopher of Murchison there is no doubt, but that Napier was indebted to him for the idea which led to the discovery of logarithms has been disproved by Mr. Mark Napier, in his elaborate life of that illustrious inventor, where particulars of Craige's intimacy with Tycho Brahe may be seen.
In regard to Sir Francis Prujear, the celebrated President of the College of Physicians, we should have liked Dr. Munk's authority for assigning Essex as his native count}'. That he possessed considerable estates there is well known, but we have some doubts as to his having been born within its confines. His first wife was of the old family of Legat, of Dagenliam. A portrait of him is in the possession of the last representative of his family, Mr. Francis Prujear, barrister-atlaw, to whom also at one time belonged a portrait of his son, Dr. Thomas Prujear, which has been unfortunately lost.
It seems to have escaped Dr. Munk, while sketching his memoir of Sir Theodore Mayerne, that some twenty volumes in autograph of that distinguished physician exist among the Sloane MSS. in the British Museum. One of these contains memoranda of his professional attendance on King James I. ; the others, entitled Ephemeridcs, form a journal of all the cases which he attended from 1603 to 1649. These are especially curious, from the very minute statements which they give, not only of the symptoms of the disease, and the remedies prescribed, but of the personal formation, state of the organs, peculiarities of diet, affections and antipathies of the patient, as also of the complaints to which his parents had been liable. As Mayerne was tho court physician of his age, the vast majority of the cases were those of the aristocracy of France and of Britain. They are all written in Latin, and, if printed with suitable annotations, would form the most interesting medical annals ever published. Can the Council of the College be induced to bestow another favour on the public by producing these relics of so noted a member *of their body, under tho editorial care of Dr. Munk, whose capabilities for such a task are so well exhibited in this lloll ? A reprint of the Case-book of Dr. Ihomas Ilall, the son-in-law of Shakspeare, would also be acceptable. A  " But all these things tell nothing against iridectomy, if it be a valuable operation. Certainly not; they only show the abuse of the measure. The same indiscretions may, and do, attend our most valuable operations. A man may operate for stone where there is none in the bladder; or proceed to relieve a strangulated hernia, where there is no rupture. But in the present instance, with the existence of great difference of opinion about the utility of the procedure, and when men are seeking for evidence from facts, the exposure of such error and malpractice is of value, because it shows that there may be conclusions from very insufficient, as well as wrong data. " It remains for me to give the result ol my experience from what I have seen of the operation in glaucomatous eyes, in the practice of others, and from my own. Respecting the first, the cases have been, with but few exceptions, of the chronic form of the disease. In some of them there was certainly a slight improvement of vision for a few days, but in none has this been more than temporary. Pain has also been relieved, and, in a few, has been so long absent, that it has been supposed to be for ever removed, when, with sad disappointment, it has returned. Some of these had been published as most successful cases. Of the acute kind I can give no better report. " My own operations have not been numerous. Having been disappointed in the result in some well-selected cases of acute glaucoma (and these have been few, for with no small field of observation I do not find such cases common), I could not make that strong recommendation to patients which they required respecting the success of an operation, or the possibility of success, to induce all to submit to it. " While I wish it most fully to be understood that I do not condcmn iridectomy, I must express my own conviction that I attribute all the good effect which may follow to the mere tapping of the aqueous humour. I nave found as much benefit to sight and reduction of pain from this, as I have been' able to trace to the other measure.
In a private patient of mine, seen by several other medical men, there was sub-acute glaucoma in one eye of nine months' standing. This lady had coruscations, and much pain. She could read nothing. The iris bulged, and the pupil was slightly dilated. Two days after the first tapping she could manage to read a part of one of the articles in the Times. The pain was relieved, and the coruscations lessened.
Vision then got as bad as before, and a slight attack of acute inflammation supervened. Several tappings, at intervals of a week, enabled her to read large tvpe, but not with clear vision, The pain quite left her, and the coruscations almost disappeared. This improved state lasted five months, as long as I attended her; during which time there was no accession of inflammation. The vitreous humour was always too hazy to afford a satisfactory examination of the fundus of the eye. operator to the public; and withal, that the facts be attested by others. The anonymous reports in the medical journals, on most operations, are, as a rule, of less value, when accuracy is needed, than is supposed; and in the present case, those that have been published are not exempt from this charge." Mr. Walton's work concludes with a chapter on the ophthalmoscope, the great discovery of the age in this department of medicine, and which owes its origin to an English medical student, although undoubtedly the Germans perfected the discovery and made it available for practice. With this instrument, or speculum, with which we can explore the interior of the eye, diseased states, of which formerly no knowledge existed, are clearly seen and understood as if they occurred on the surface of the body. The earliest stage of cataract, heretofore inscrutable, can be most readily and quickly discerned.
Indeed, the student of the present day, with the ophthalmoscope, is able to understand more about the diseases of the eye than the veteran professor of a past generation. Mr. Walton's treatise contains all about the subject in a practical form. Dr. Guardia announces that the higher studies languish and die in which has since been universally admitted. This law was proclaimed coincidently with the period when reason assumed its real rank and sway among the human faculties. In this grand, it may he designated the encyclopiedic, era of progress in France, appeared the observations of Fouquet?a disciple of Borden?on insensibility, Bichat, Cabanis, and Vicq-d'Azyr followed, leaving valuable researches upon the brain and nervous centres. As a discoverer of great and original mind, as an intrepid philosopher, and as an accurate and consistent physiologist, the striking merits and services of Gall must be acknowledged by every man. Although unrewarded and uncanonized, he has this distinction, of having promulgated a thorough reform in our conceptions of the higher mental powers.
Like the knowledge of the nervous system, the study of mental disease is modern. The priests burnt the insane as possessed, the philosophers arrived at no more correct views of the derangement of intellect than the maniacs themselves. Friedericli shows how numerous and how illusory were the attempts to grapple with this class of affections until an intimate knowledge of the phenomena of the nervous system was attained. To Pinel alone belongs the glory of first carrying into the study and treatment of insanity clear views and humane sentiments. He belonged, however, to the eighteenth century?he was timid, undecided, and the slave of scholastic influences.
At once a man of progress and a man of routine, an innovator and original, but vague and unsteadj^, he gave the signal for battle even before Bichat; he recalcitrated, then re-entered the strife, and ultimately fell into and disappeared along the backward groove. Esquirol, his worthy successor, an observer, in the strict sense of the word, possessed those second-rate qualities which constitute a physician. His sagacity did not penetrate beyond the fact?he saw, noted, and described faithfully phenomena, without seizing the relations which give them significance, not perceiving, perhaps, the necessity of working out the subject synthetically, lie had the tendency of narrow but practical intellects of doubting that generalization is compatible with practice.
His works are a collection of memoirs, a repertory abounding in facts, but they do not develope a law or a theory. Unlike his predecessor, he was absolute, exclusive, confined himself to his speciality, and repudiated alike the authority of his master, and the innovations which pressed upon him from all sides and sources. The capital and fatal errors of these great minds were, that they were reactionary in the revolution in science which swept around and past them ; and that they were hostile to the views of their contemporaries, Gall and Broussais. These regenerators have lived in anticipation of a more developed state of intelligence, capable of appreciating and applying the solemn and essential truths which they advocated. Their creed may be summed up in the aphorism, there can be no function without an organ, 110 psychical phenomenon without a nerve. Georget, Lallemand, Leuret, are enumerated as eminent disciples of this school; but a ough Dr. Guardia affirms that the design of his essay has been to s ow that the principle of life has been misunderstood, that it is necessary to go back to a cerebral physiology which shall not, like the psychology of the present day, be confined to the intellectual faculties, but which shall include the instincts and propensities and sentiments demonstrated to be connected with the base and posterior parts of the brain ; one object is constantly before him, he offers homage to another and a most distinguished member of this group. The pamphlet is as much an eloge of M. Falret, senior, as a monody upon the state of medical education. Besides incidental tributes, there is to be found at pp. 11, 17, 26, a laboured panegyric upon this physician, who may be justly described as not merely the representative of a particular dogma or doctrine, but as at the head of the Psychological School in France. So entirely do we coincide in the description given, that we shall quote one of many similar passages:? of which is to be lamented, may be seen in the assembly of great and gifted men who now constitute the Soci6te Medico-Psychologique.
Lectures on the Diseases of the Kidney, generally Jcnoivn as " Brightfs Diseaseand Dropsy. By S. J. Goodfellow, M.D. Lond. F.R.C.P., Physician to the Middlesex Hospital, &c. London. 1861. 8vo, pp. 306. This is one of those thoroughly useful books which are at all times a boon to the actively engaged practitioner. It is the work of an accomplished and thoughtful physician ; and together with the results of his own practice and observation, presents an excellent and valuable summary of all that is known upon the subjects of which he writes.
The lectures were originally published at intervals in the Medical Times and Gazette; but the author has acted wisely in gathering them together in one volume. The mode in which Dr. Goodfellow treats his subjects will be best shown by an example. The following, taken almost at random, refers to the pathological action of alcohol:? " That alcohol is a local irritant is unquestionable, and that it produces its effects upon the system partly in this way is very probable. It may act remotely by sympathy to some small extent, as Orfila believed. But we have seen from the very able researches of MM. Lallemand, Perrin, and Duroy, from whose book I have already quoted so largely, that it is rapidly absorbed by the venous radicles, and that its principal action is directly upon the different organs which it irritates, and eventually inflames. Especially has it been proved to be present in greater proportion in the nervous tissue than elsewhere, which it more particularly excites. It disturbs its functions; it perverts and ultimately destroys the intellectual, and even the emotional faculties; it disturbs the function of the sensory nerves, both common and special, as shown by subjective tactile phenomena, strange perversions of taste, double vision, and other disorders of the optic nerves, tinnitus aurium, and other disorders of the auditory nerves. It equally disorders and destroys the functions of the motor nerves, as shown in irregularity and absence of consentaneous action of the movements. From these effects upon the cerebrospinal system, it is more than probable that it disturbs and impairs the functions of the organic nervous system, as evidenced by defective nutrition and secretion. When taken in the form of brandy, whisky, gin, and such fluids, it impairs nutrition, probably from its great attraction for water, inspissating the blood and juices of the body. I need not mention in what large proportion water enters into the composition of the tissues and fluids of the body. It is probably in this way that it acts as a diuretic, so far as the increase of the ?watery part of the urine is concerned, not only from the increased quantity of water ingested with and after the brandy, but from its abstracting it from the tissues. There is no doubt that it tends to harden the brain substance, and to produce atrophy of many of the structures, not only by increasing the quantity of connective and other white fibrous tissues, and so leading to undue pressure upon the more important pads, but by condensing the fissures directly by the abstraction of water. There is 110 doubt of its exerting this destroying influence upon the liver. I shall endeavour to show you that it docs so upon the kidney also. As a general rule, it irritates and inflames the tissues of the stomach and duodenum, and even the pancreatic and hepatic ducts, and it probably affects and deteriorates the secretion of these glands. It produces hypertrophy of the connective tissue forming Glisson's capsule, which, in its turn, presses upon the sma L vessels, and upon the hepatic cells, and produces atrophy of these anaonuca elements 111 two ways, first, by cutting oil' the supply of nutrient mate-rials; and, secondly, by absorption from pressure. It probably exerts a direct effect upon these cells, leading to their destruction, independently of those produced by the thickening of Glisson's capsule. The digestive processes are probably still more impaired by the bad quality of the bile and pancreatic secrction. " Now, very much the same changes take place in the kidney as in the liver and other organs. We have seen that alcohol passes through the vessels and tissues of this organ as alcohol; it irritates these tissues, as it does similar tissues in other parts ; it leads to blood delay ; it impairs the influence and function of the nervous system ; it produces hypertrophy of the connective tissues, forming the stroma or framework ot the organ and of the capsule ; and it produces a granular appearance precisely as it does in the liver. In iact, this alteration is very commonly seen in both these organs in old drunkards, especially and almost exclusively those who take the raw spirit in large quantities, or spirit mixed with only small quantities of water. Those who drink largely of beer, aud perhaps of wine, are found to have a somewhat different form of kidney from those who drink it in other forms, especially when taken as gin, brandy, &c. But we have seen that alcohol separates and modifies the fatty matters of the blood. MM. Lallemand, Perrin, and Duroy, have seen this. Most pathologists believed that so far as the relation between cause and effect could be traced, it was almost certain that alcoholic beverages, when largely and continuously consumed for any length of time, led to fatty degradation. This separation and alteration of the fatty principles of the blood, have now been actually seen and proved, and probably play a very important part in the pathological effect of alcohol, when taken in large quantities, in the form ?f brandy, gin, whisky, &c. Saponifiable fatty matters that are visible to the naked eye are calculated to impede the circulation through the capillaries?if n?t to cut off the blood-supply altogether?and so produce atrophy of the secreting tissues, while the connective tissues, supporting the vessels, would receive an undue supply of blood plasma, and therefore become hypertrophied. It is not improbable that some of these fatty matters become transuded with the exudates, and thus lead to the presence of fat in the tubular, and also in the inter-tubular, substance; some may also remain in the walls of the capillary vessels, and replace in time the normal elements."? (pp. 187?91.) Meteorology. By

1861.
,U ^ Ihese two works are reprints of the articles on these subjects in the last edition of that great literary and publishing achievement, tlis lsHcyclopcvdia Britannica. The present publications have been revised and certain additions made to them by the distinguished author ; and in their present form they furnish what has long been wanted, handy, inexpensive, yet withal beautifully printed, and thoroughly trustworthy manuals of the subjects on which they tieat.
It is on this account that we are particularly desirous to diiect the attention of students and lecturers to these two works the one the necessary complement of the other.
Io the scientific medical man a competent knowledge ot meteorology and physical geography is simply essential.
ithout it not only several of the chief problems in biology and the causation of disease are inextricable mysteries, but even the ordinary phenomena connected 7o2 Literary Gossip and Record.
with the origin and development of maladies can be but imperfectly comprehended. Meteorological and physical-geographical facts intrude themselves largely, both into the medical and physiological, and the former have a distinct place in the chemical, courses of our Schools of Medicine. The weather, the seasons, and climate, the peculiar subjects of meteorology, have special and all-important medical aspects, and neither the weather, nor seasons, nor climate, can be rightly understood apart from physical geography.
Judging from our own experience, both students and teachers often feel the want of a text-book on both subjects, which while sufficiently brief not to exact too much from the time of the former, could be recommended without hesitation by the latter. This want is admirably supplied by the publication of Sir John F. W. Herschel's essays in a separate form. Dr. Whewell has achieved the great task of bringing Plato within the reach of every English reader. When the first volume of the Platonic Dialogues appeared, we directed the attention of our readers at some length* to the advantages arising from the publication, and the gratitude due to the Master of Trinity, from all readers to whom the original was a shut book, for the happy idea and admirable execution of the work. We have now to record the publication of two additional volumes. The second volume contains what Dr. W. terms " the Anti-sophist Dialogues," " inasmuch," he writes, " as they are mainly occupied with discussions in which persons who have been called ' sophists' by Plato and by his commentators, are represented as refuted, perplexed, or silenced. Of such persons there will be found in the following pages, Protagoras, Prodicus, Hippias, Gorgias, Polus, Callicles, Ion, Euthydemus, Dionysiodorus, and Thrasymachus, who is, however, much more prominent in the First Book of the Republic. But though these persons are all included by some of Plato's admirers under the term sophists, are all involved by many commentators in that charge of false reasoning and sinister purpose which we imply by the term, and are looked upon by many persons as a sect or party who made common cause, corrupted the moral principles ot the Athenians, and were unmasked and put down by Plato ; they were, in truth, most diverse in their tenets, characters, position, mode of discussion, and objects; and were, several of these, as strenuous inculcators of virtue and as subtle reasoners as Plato himself." The dialogues contained in this volume are, Protagoras, the Greater Hippias, the Lesser Hippias, Ion, Euthydemus, Gorgias, Phxnlrus, Menexonus, and Philebus. 6 The third volume contains the Republic and tho Timious. In tho preface ot this volume Dr. Whewell writes :? I cannot but believe that the English reader, though lie may sometimes he * Journal of Psychological Medicine, vol. xiii. p. 144. disappointed with the results of Plato's speculations, will find, in that portion of the Platonic Dialogues which I have now completed, a very striking body of writings. It appears to me also, that these writings become more striking by being taken in the order in which 1 have presented them. The points discussed in the Laches, the Charm ides,the Lysis, the Rivals,ihcAlcibiades, though involving weighty questions, are in a great degree juvenile puzzles, belonging to an early stage of Moral Philosophy. After these, the fine dramatic delineations of other moral teachers and disputants, Protagoras, Prodicus, Hippias, Gor^ias, Polus, Ion, Thrasymachus, form an extraordinary gallery of philosophical poi traits.
And this depiction is further graced by a lolt v tone of virtuous resolve, as in the Gorgias, and by a thorough enjoyment of literary beauty and literary playfulness, as in the Phcedrus ; while through all there runs a stedfast assertion of the great, doctrine of the Immortality of the soul, presented as the belief of Socrates in the great tragedy of his death, the Phcedo, and again urged in various ln3'thological forms in the Gorgias, the Phcedrus, and the Republic ; add to this subtle speculations concerning the soul and its faculties, anticipating the most scute analyses of modern psychologists:?and we have, I think, matter in which /he English reader may find grouud for an admiration of Plato, and a pleasure in reading him, not altogether disproportionate to the reputation which belongs to his name. . . ' I hat Plato's arguments are sometimes inconclusive, sometimes unfair, and jns dramatic representations of opponents sometimes caricatures, are criticisms to which he has been subjected from his own day to ours ; and the justice of them will not be denied, I think, by any one who undertakes to make sense of ^ hat lie has written. I am aware that there have been persons who have explained all seeming inconsistencies and weaknesses in him by ascribing to him ? habit of writing ironically. To suppose that Plato is an author whose habit is to lay traps for unwary readers by saying the opposite to what he means, would be to make him the dullest of jesters; and I should hope there are few 01 bis Greek readers who have so poor an opinion of him. . J he ethical system of Plato is completed in the Dialogues which 1 lia\e now published. There are other Dialogues of great interest, as the Banquet, the 'atylus, the Theatelus, which I have not yet translated^ >> hether 1 shall v ?nturc to undertake these, circumstances must determine.' ^ e trust that these circumstances may prove favourable. If the publication of a seventh edition of this important standard work does not convey to the reader a sufficiently clear idea of the degree of estimation in which it is held, let him learn from the preface that since first publication in 1844, fifteen thousand seven hundred and fifty copies have issued from the press. In the present edition the author states that he has not found it necessary to make any extensive changes, but some articles have been abridged in order to make room for more recent information, and every chapter has been carefully revised throughout so as to place the work on a level with the progress ol medical and legal knowledge. PP. 399-This is a work of singular interest and importance. The writer justly says that " no work of modern date exists in which the cyclical changes proceeding in the human system are described, or in which even the influence of season is cited at any length to the causation and treatment of disease." He seeks to supply the want here indicated and to place our knowledge in this respect upon a more exact and scientific basis. To effect this he has submitted himself and others to a series of experimental observations, extending almost without intermission over a period of six years. The results of these observations have been presented from time to time before various learned societies, but in the present work the whole of the author's researches are for the first time embodied, and their application to health and disease set forth, in a connected form. From the late period at which we have received Dr. Smith's work, we are, in justice both to the author and his subject, reluctantly compelled to postpone its consideration until our next number.
In this highly interesting pamphlet, reprinted from volume XLIII. of the Medico -Ghirurgical Transactions, recently published, Dr. Webster succinctly describes various observations made by him when inspecting, during a previous autumn, the ancient institution he has named, it being one of the oldest charities throughout Europe, and originally founded by Isabella, Queen of Spain, more than three centures and a half ago; that is, soon after Granada was wrested from Moorish domination.
Believing some notice of the salient features which leprosy presents, as also a summary of the facts detailed, may prove interesting, we would here observe, that when visited by Dr. Webster in September, 1859, the establishment contained 53 inmates ; 39 being male, and 14 female patients ; showing that the former sex greatly predominated in number over the latter. This excess of male lepers has always prevailed, and experience proves that men are more frequently affected than women, in the proportion of about five to two at the least; while, in reference to age, among these 53 leprous sufferers there were individuals varying from a girl fourteen years old, and a lad not much more advanced, to persons of both sexes verging towards their grand climacteric. Again, as to the complaint itself, some patients appeared only recent victims, whereas others had been several years attacked ; while all seemed slowly but surely advancing to a fatal termination.
Various cases have the mouth and tongue ulcerated, sending forth a horrible stench ; their voice then becoming weak and husky, so that they could only speak in a whisper; while some were without an eye, or part of their face was eat away by extensive sores. Several had lost ingers, toes, and even a hand, in consequence of ulceration ; whereby ie poor sufferer became a horrid spectacle of mutilation and helplessness.
I wo or three were all but bedridden from their physical suller-ings or debility ; and two formed such a mass of bodily corruption, that it would be difficult to give any description. One particular phase of the mental faculties noticed in leprous victims deserves notice?namely, they almost universally seemed happy, and even quite contented with their really sad condition.
Another curious characteristic likewise merits record, namely, numbers were very lascivious in conversation, and their conduct would, have become equally objectionable, but for the strict surveillance constantly exercised to keep the sexes separate, since in both the ' libido inexplebilis" of ancient authors often constitutes a prominent symptom among such parties.
Regarding the particular districts from whence lepers at the Granada Hospital usually came, it may be stated that very rarely any were natives either of the city 01* adjacent " Vega," which is one of the most fertile regions throughout Spain. Almost all the patients being from places adjoining the low, south-eastern Mediterranean sea-shore, especially Almeria, Adra, Motril, Malaga, Velez-Malaga, or adjacent villages?Cadiz and its vicinity being also affected. Hence, the malady would seem as if especially obnoxious to marine populations, not persons who dwell habitually upon more elevated or inland localities.
Although leprosy is now very rarely seen in countries whei e formerly it proved exceedingly common, modern Spanish observers asseit confidently that the malady has been lately increasing in number throughout various situations of the Peninsula; more victims of the disease being at present recognised than during the early part 01 the current century.
. That the complaint still prevails to a considerable extent in some regions of Spain, appears to be conclusively illustrated b} an mstrucivve /act recently communicated to the Madrid Royal Aca emy of Medicine, b}' Senor Mendez Alveiro?namely, that 284 leprous pa-the sea-coast oftener eat than persons dwelling inland, to a certain extent, may explain the greater frequency of this malady in maritime districts, compared with central and more elevated regions. Again, not only deficiency of proper nutriment is injurious, but eating diseased hog's flesh, habitual intoxication produced by deleterious " aguardiente "?bad, fiery brandy?consumption of old, mouldy grain, a scanty supply of vegetables, the want of salt, and abstinence from animal food, prove equally detrimental.
After discussing one or two other important questions bearing upon the loathsome affection here brought under review, but which space prevents our further alluding to on the present occasion, the author subsequently observes, although no expectation can be reasonably entertained of curing confirmed leprosy by remedies, or even of arresting its fatal progress after a certain stage, still something may perhaps be accomplished towards alleviating the sufferings of those victims who ocsionally have become martyrs to such an inveterate and incurable disease.
Judging from the experience acquired at the Granada Leper Hospital it would seem through attention to diet, cleanliness, frequent bathing, and proper clothing, some alleviation of individual suffering may be occasionally accomplished ; while the judicious employment of patients in manual occupations, according to their physical strength and individual capacity, by remaining much in open places,where refreshing, pure air may be breathed, aided by varied recreations, good effects are sometimes obtained. In short, the system pursued should mainly resemble that now followed at most well-regulated lunatic asylums. Of course local remedies must be also applied to ulcerated surfaces?usually soothing applications?while the medicines prescribed internally will comprise those chiefly of a tonic description. But in regard to anticipating any permanent beneficial result through medical treatment, such an expectation Dr.Webster considers as almost invariably nugatory. Speaking of the occasion when nearly fifty leprous inmates attended at chapel, during the performance of divine service, the author remarks rather feelingly that, at no public establishment of any kind ever previously inspected throughout Europe, had he witnessed such a disgusting sight as the spectacle these miserably afflicted fellow-mortals there presented to the eyes of professional or curious visitors. The disfigured, ghastly countenances of some, covered with deep, extensive sores : distorted features of others; the idiotic expression of many, and the feeble physical frames of most; at the same time that every person was then devoutly kneeling and engaged in prayer; formed altogether such a melancholy exhibition of frail humanity, that the scene baffled description, and therefore few persons would desire, it is believed, again to join in any similar ceremony, or one so lugubrious.
Finally, in concluding his notes respecting the Granada institution for lepers, of which we have now made a running commentary, in order so convey thereby some general notion of several salient points discussed in the present communication, Dr. Webster observes, according to numerous recognized facts contained therein, and which were all obamed from reliable authorities, that the following general inferences may be legitimately deduced:? " 1st. Leprosy chiefly affects the male sex, as it has always done heretofore. 2nd.-Every age is liable to its attacks, but mostly that after puberty and during manhood.
((3rd-The malady is not infectious, in the strict sense of that definition. It seems to be an endemic disease. t( 5*h. Occurs only among the lower and badly fed ranks of society, at present. <Jth. Residents on the sea-coast constitute its ordinary victims in Spain, as elsewhere.
? Leprosy may be communicated by inoculation,?according to some authorities. ^ *s incurable when fully developed; hence in the latter stages, all e ^cal treatment proves unavailing. IO, ' an(i lastly. Although the disease seems nearly extinct in districts wnere leprosv farmm-ln Who 1' " . tuiuu^uuuL opaiu; especially among poveny-suiuKuu natives, Renins ?1 e>> UP011 or ncar the Southern Mediterranean sea-shores of that During the middle ages, and subsequent to the crusades, leprosy was an exceedingly common alFection even amongst the highest ranks of society. For instance, Don Alonzo, King of Arragon, died in 1284, ?f that malady, and King Robert the Bruce, of Scotland, also fell its victim after several years' sufferings. So common was leprosy throughout Great Britain, that not many centuries ago, upwards of one hundred azar"houses existed in this country ; indeed, the village of Libberton, near Edinburgh, derives its name from this disease being then very freciuent,and hence originally called Lepper-town; while St. ames b a,acc at London, is said to have been first built as a receptacle for lepers. iS ow the complaint has almost wholly disappeared from Europes, with the exception of Spain and a few maritime regions where it still ravages the population; Greece, the sea-coast of Portugal, and Norway, ^.eing considerably devastated. In Iceland, likewise, according to Dr. Lindsay of Perth, "leprosy exists to a considerable extent; and Perhaps sporadically in other European districts. Therefore, its absence may be held as a sure indication of advanced civilization, 111 any country ^liere so incurable and direful a disease proved at one period veiy rue and destructive among all classes of residents.
Year-Book of Medicine and Surgery, and the Allied Sciences, for i860. Edited by Dr " Once, indeed, in this country, long before the era of Pincl, clinical psychology promised fair to assume its proper position, for we find that one ot the objects proposed at the foundation of St. Luke's, in 175was ^at ' "^ro* ducing more gentlemen of the faculty to the study and practice ot one ot the most important branches of physic.' The enlightened physician of this hospital at that time, Dr. William Beattie, tells us, too, in the preface to liis 'Treatise on Madness,' that, ' by a unanimous vote the governors signified their intention of admitting young physicians, well recommended, to visit the hospital, and freely to observe the treatment of the patients confined.' But Dr. Beattie was far in advance of his age, and immediately after his death a retrograde movement in psychological matters took place. At this we cannot be surprised, when we remember that this was almost coeval with the time when Samuel Johnson, himself not free from the gloom of mental disease, and Foote, enlivened themselves with an occasional stroll among the lunatics of Bedlam, or with witnessing a hanging or judicial Hogging; and when swarms of schoolboys paid twopence during the Easter holidays to see ' the fools' in the same hospital. This institution is said to have derived at one time an income of 400/. per annum from the exhibition of its inmates.
"Tracing the history of clinical psychology in England, we find no further effort at such tuition made for nearly a hundred years. In 1842, however, St. Luke's again opened its wards to students, and in the same year Dr. Couolly commenced lecturing at Hanwcll. Dr. Sutherland and Dr. Hitchman have also lectured upon insanity; and now almost every English asylum receives a limited number of resident pupils. In Germany, clinical instruction in psychology appears to have originated with Horn, who lectured at Berlin in 1818. Uorn was succeeded by Newmann, and Newmannby Idcler. Miiller, Conradi, and Frank have also lectured on psychology in Germany, having illustrative insane cases introduced into their ordinary hospitals. Now, too, young medical men arc admitted into some German asylums.
" At an early period in the history of reformed psychology, the celebrated Guislain gave lectures in Belgium which were afterwards collected and condensed into his valuable ' Lef011s Oralcs;' whilst in Holland, Van dcr Kolk has strongly advocated the necessity for the study of mental disease. " In France, perhaps more than in any other c6untry, progress has been made in psychological teaching. Pincl having inaugurated a new regime, and introduced humane principles into asylum discipline, gave lectures on his favourite study, having as illustrations patients in Salpetricrc. This he did about 1814, and was followed in a few years by Esquirol, who lectured at the same hospital, and afterwards at the royal asylum of Charcnton. M. Fcrrus, M. Bottex, and M. Rech, have all been psychological tcachers in France. M. Baillargcr and M. Falret, both so well known in this country, have also contributed to the advance of psychological science by instructing in it, and I ranee possesses many other distinguished lecturers upon insanity.
In Scotland, the first lectures 011 the subjcct of insanity were those delivered by the venerable Sir Alexander Morrison, in 1827. They were so lar clinical that they were illustrated by drawings of striking cases which had occurred in his own practice?a mode of teaching then a novelty. These work?SUOmiCal pictures furnisl?cd part of the drawings in Sir Alexander's large In 1836, Dr/YV. A. F. Browne gave a course of five lectures at the Montrose Asylum. They were sanctioned by the directors, but heard by a promiscuous audience, and were regarded as a bold step. They form the volume, What ?Asylums were, are, and ought to he. In 1840 we find the author of this work, in one of his annual reports, advocating systematic psychological teaching.
We quote the passage, as it was the first shadowing forth of a principle which has since been widely adopted. After enumerating the high qualities necessary in a medical superintendent, he writes :?Acting upon the conviction that sucli qualifications can rarely be found combined, and can only be acquired by long training and experience, it has been proposed to render the Institution a cliuical school for the education of young medical men who propose to make insanity a special study. Under ccrtain restrictions one or more students will be admitted as assistants to the physician, who will thus have the inestimable advantage of living among the insane, of watching and becoming acquainted ^ith their habits of thinking and acting, and of performing every office which kindness dictates or treatment demands. For obvious reasons the whole of an asylum cannot be thrown open to all students indiscriminately, however desirable in some respects such an innovation might be; and these assistants are accordingly required to have received some instructions in medicine previous to their appointment, to be articled pupils of the superintendent, and to be members of the household.' In 18^,1, l)r. Browne again gave a course of lectures to his medical assistants at the Crichton Royal Institution, Dumfries, instructing J iem in the observation of mental disease, and teaching the application ot the principles of nhilosophv and medicine in the modes of treatment now employed.
" In Edinburgh, for many years the absence of any systematic course of lectures 011 mental diseases constituted a great detect, but we ha\c now two distinguished lecturers on the subject. Dr. Skae, the justly eminent superintendent of Morningside, commenced lecturing several years ago, and has smce continued to give an annual summer course, which may be attended with much profit, not merely by students having Indian service m view, but by those entertaining other projects. It consists of systematic lectures on mental diseases, and visits to the asylum, where characteristic and striking eases are met and conversed with, and where the principles of asylum construction are demonstrated. Professor Laycock began giving a special summer course in 1859 ; but he had previously been in the habit of incorporating a series ot lectures on insanity with his winter course on Practice of Physic. I would be lacking m diffidence were I to speak of Professor Laycock s ability for the task which lie has imposed upon himself in so disinterested a manner. I will only remark, that his profound and extensive knowledge of_ philosophy, combined \\ lth his distinguished professional attainments and his experience, acquired whilst physician to an asylum in England, renders him peculiarly fitted to act as a teacher of psychology. The University of Edinburgh is deeply indebted to him for supplying what was an obvious defect in its medical department, by a course at once theoretical and practical. . , , , .
After all that has been said, we must surely be astonished that such 'a glaring anomaly should still exist as the exclusion from the prescribed course study of one of the most important diseases in the whole range of nosology, and one which every practitioner must, sooner or later, meet in Ins c\ei\-day business.' * The conscqucnces of this exclusion have been felt by some of the "In illustration of the growing and acknowledged necessity for incorporating special inquiry into mental diseases with general clinical instiuction, 1 may mention that Professor Bennett, my distinguished teacher, since these words were delivered, has greatly enlarged his consideration of the subject in his clinical course." most distinguished of our profession. The illustrious Dr. Alison, some years before his death, caused a psychologist to describe to him, at great length, the general paralysis of the insane, which he had never recognised; and very recently, gossip says that another psychologist was requested to read a monograph on the same subject, to a learned Society, the Medico-Chirurgical of this city, for the special behoof of its members. It is to be fervently hoped that a remedy for the evils which we have attempted to point out will be speedily applied. Some continental schools have, in this matter, set us an example which we would do well to follow by establishing regular clinical psychological courses. Perhaps a sanguine spirit may attribute to the