Elsevier

Forest Policy and Economics

Volume 62, January 2016, Pages 141-148
Forest Policy and Economics

Commercialisation of mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) in rural households in Limpopo Province, South Africa

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.08.012Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Commercialisation of mopane worm is valuable to rural people in Limpopo Province, South Africa

  • 63% of mopane worm harvested is sold within a production year

  • Continued over exploitation and commercialisation has implication for resource management and conservation

  • Results shows that age, gender, education, exogenous income, price of mopane worm

  • Quantity of marketable surplus and transportation are factors impacting on intensity of commercialisation

Abstract

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) have been identified as a key source of income for rural households. In South Africa, mopane worms (Imbrasia belina) have become an important source of food and cash income for rural people living in or near the mopane woodlands. However, the continued over-exploitation and commercialisation has implications for long term management of the mopane woodlands in the northern parts of South Africa. This study used a cross-sectional dataset collected from a survey of 120 households in Limpopo province in an effort to identify socio-economic factors influencing mopane worm commercialisation and intensity of commercialisation. The Household Commercialisation Index (HCI) and the Double Hurdle Model were used for the analysis. Result shows that about 63% of mopane worm harvested is sold within a production year which implies high level of commercialisation. The result of the Double Hurdle Model showed that gender, education, household size, quantity harvested, social capital, distance, transportation and information impact on households’ decision-making to commercialised mopane worm. Furthermore, household age, gender, education, exogenous income, price, quantity of marketable surplus, absence of institution/law and transportation are statistically significant factors influencing the intensity of mopane worm commercialisation in the study area. This therefore suggests that, in order to achieve a balance between sustainable harvesting of mopane worm and improving the livelihoods of the rural poor that depends on it for food and income, there is a need for policy makers to focus on the dynamics in household socio-economic conditions. Implications for policy were discussed.

Introduction

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are biological matter of wild plants and animals other than timber extracted from forests and woodlands (e.g. fruits, nuts, vegetables, game, medicinal plants, resins, bark, fibers, palms, grasses including small wood products, firewood etc), harvested by local households and communities from around homestead, fields, grazing land and relatively intact vegetation for domestic consumption or trade (CIFOR, 2011, Shackleton et al., 2007, Shackleton et al., 2011). Trade in NTFPs has been recognized as promoting forest conservation, supporting current consumption, longer-term poverty reduction and the safety-net of rural households by enhancing their livelihoods through increased cash income, especially when other sources of income fail to meet household needs (Angelsen et al., 2014, Rizek and Morsello, 2012, Pouliot, 2012, Saha and Sundriyal, 2012, Heubach et al., 2011, Paumgarten and Shackleton, 2011, Areki and Cunningham, 2010, Kamanga et al., 2009, Babulo et al., 2009, Cocks et al., 2008).

The contribution of NTFPs trade to livelihoods typically ranges from 5% to over 90% of total household income, depending on the degree of involvement and specialisation, extent of value adding and seasonality of the resource (Asfaw et al., 2013, Moresello et al., 2012, Shackleton et al., 2008), with some cases indicating an income share greater than that from cash crops and informal cash incomes (Dovie, 2003). For example, studies have shown that in Asia and Africa, as much as 20.1% and 21.4% respectively of rural households’ income may be derived from forest incomes (Angelsen et al., 2014). The cash value and direct-use value of NTFPs has been calculated to be worth several hundred dollars per annum per household (Dovie et al., 2005, Shackleton and Gumbo, 2010). Therefore, many resource poor households in rural communities all over the world depend on NTFPs for their survival (Shackleton and Gumbo, 2010). NTFPs also are valued for their biological diversity for medicinal, local aesthetic use as well as for their cultural, recreational and spiritual values (Kim et al., 2012, Cocks et al., 2011, Areki and Cunningham, 2010, Muzayen, 2009, Cocksedge, 2006).

A majority of South Africa’s rural population lives on communal lands in the former homelands, where poverty is endemic and has remained pervasive (Baiyegunhi and Fraser, 2011, Aliber, 2003). As a result, the consumption and commercialisation of NTFPs is seen as an important potential way for improving households’ living standards and achieving solution to the endemic poverty (Scherr et al., 2004, Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004). Mopane worms, caterpillars of the emperor moth Imbrasia belina, which feed virtually solely on the mopane tree Colophospermum mopane, are valuable NTFP resource that are used for subsistence and sold to generate income (Makhado et al., 2012, Ghazoul, 2006). In Southern Africa, estimates shows that the mopane woodland covers about 30-35% of the 1.5 million km2 of savannas with an estimated 23,000 km2 of mopane woodland occurring in the warmer Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces (Mapaure, 1994). It was previously estimated that from these areas, a total an annual population of 9500 million mopane worms worth US$84 million was harvested, of which approximately 40% was harvested by rural people who are often poor women (Styles, 1994). Recently, it has been estimated that about 16,000 metric tonnes of mopane worms are traded commercially at between US$2.50–US$4.00 per kilogram in South Africa, generating about US$39–US$59 million per annum (Potgieter et al., 2012). However, due to the reduction in availability of mopane worms, the value is currently estimated at between US$30–US$50 million (Makhado et al., 2014). Makhado et al. (2009) found that individual mopane worm traders in the Limpopo Province, South Africa can earn about R20,000 (US$2457) per annum.

With an increasing focus on poverty alleviation in most developing countries, NTFPs have been considered for their role in minimizing the impact of crises on rural households and as a possible means to assist households to move out of poverty (Shackleton and Pandey, 2014, Cosyns et al., 2011, Rasul et al., 2008). However, rural communities are increasingly selling products that were previously used for subsistence purposes (Gondo et al., 2010, Dovie et al., 2005). This change is motivated at local level by a greater need for cash as people become more integrated into a market economy and face economic hardship and unemployment (Belcher et al., 2005). The low entry barriers to trade for poor and marginalized people with minimal education and skills make NTFPs an important option (Shackleton and Gumbo, 2010). Furthermore, the areas dominated by mopane trees generally have low agricultural potential where cultivation is risky, with regular failure of staple grain crops leading to a high degree of livelihood vulnerability (Hope et al., 2009). Also, agricultural productivity from tribal lands is inadequate, as it just maintains a household at subsistence level (Papola, 2000). Hence, mopane worms represent an important source of food and income at a time when many households have limited alternatives (Frost, 2005).

Despite the potential income benefits associated with the commercialisation of NTFPs especially mopane worm, there is concern that the rising commercialisation in the global market can have a variety of ecological consequences including resource depletion, changes in biodiversity and resource quality as well as on the subsistence use of NTFPs, particularly in areas where there is high dependence on it for daily nutrition and income (Makhado et al., 2012, Makhado, 2008, Belcher et al., 2005). If the abundance or productivity of NTFP species is impaired, then the potential contributions to rural livelihoods will diminish over time (Mutenje et al., 2011, Thang et al., 2010). Therefore, in order to keep the balance between conservation and households’ livelihood, the link between economic benefits of NTFPs and their resource base (including local availability and sustainability) need to be understood. In so doing, the relation between households' socio-economic conditions and commercial collection of mopane worms should be identified first.

Within any given community, there is significant socio-economic differentiation arising from a multitude of factors such as levels of education, employment, income, age, family size relationship to elites etc. (Kepe, 2002, Cavendish, 2000). It is important to examine such differentiation when considering policy and management interventions to support rural livelihoods and promote sustainable use of natural resources. This is because it is plausible that different socio-economic groups will perceive and use NTFPs differently. In order to identify the significant relations between households' socio-economic conditions and commercial collection of mopane worms, this study addressed two broad questions. First, how much does mopane worm commercialisation contribute to rural households’ income portfolio? Second, what household level socio-economic characteristics and contextual and market variables affect mopane worm commercialisation and the intensity of commercialisation among rural households in Limpopo province, South Africa.

Section snippets

Study area

The study was conducted in Greater Giyani and Greater Letaba local municipalities in Mopani district of Limpopo Province, South Africa. The Mopani district is vast with about 90% of the population living in rural areas, with estimated population in 2011 of about 1,061,815 people, with a total of 263,862 households within an area of 20,010 km2. The Greater Giyani local municipality has a population size of 244,217 people, with 63,548 households which makes it the second largest municipality,

Description of determinants of commercialisation decision and intensity of commercialisation

The determinants of the decision to market and intensity of commercialisation, as well as the significance level of tests of difference between means for each determinant for sellers and non-sellers are presented in Table 2.

The results presented in Table 2 shows that the average age of mopane worm seller is about 41 years. This means household engaged in mopane worm commercialisation in the area are relatively young and within the economically active population. However, there is a

Discussion

This study found that female-headed households were more likely to participate in mopane worm markets and supply more marketable surplus compared to male-headed households. This is probably because female-headed households are resource constrained, lacking access to productive assets (land, labour, capital) which limits their agricultural production capabilities, hence they rely more on forest products for subsistence and cash income, suggesting that mopane worm market is more accessible and/or

Conclusions and policy implications

Commercialisation of mopane worms is valuable to rural people in Limpopo Province, South Africa, considering the prevailing socio-economic conditions in the area. Cash generated from sale of mopane worms helps alleviate poverty, improve livelihoods and allows participation of the rural people in a growing cash economy. However, high rate of unstainable commercial harvesting practices are common leading to the depletion of mopane woodland. It is expected that in view of increased rural

Acknowledgments

The College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal (JP5956-48901) is acknowledged for funding this study through its postgraduate student bursary. We also thank the all the households and the key informants in the study areas that participated in the survey and focus group discussions.

References (87)

  • I.A. Kim et al.

    Cultural uses of non-timber forest products among the Sts'ailes, British Columbia, Canada

    Forest Policy Econ.

    (2012)
  • G. Mujawamariya et al.

    Importance of socio-economic factors in the collection of NTFPs: the case of gum Arabic in Keya

    Forest Policy Econ.

    (2014)
  • M.J. Mutenje et al.

    Management of non-timber forestry products extraction: local institutions, ecological knowledge and market structure in south-eastern Zimbabwe

    Ecol. Econ.

    (2011)
  • F. Paumgarten et al.

    Wealth differentiation in household use and trade in non-timber forest products in South Africa

    Ecol. Econ.

    (2009)
  • D. Saha et al.

    Utilisation of non-timber forest products in humid tropics: implications for management and livelihood

    Forest Policy Econ.

    (2012)
  • C.M. Shackleton et al.

    Positioning non-timber forest products on the development agenda

    Forest Policy Econ.

    (2014)
  • C.M. Shackleton et al.

    Household wealth status and natural resource use in the Kat River valley, South Africa

    Ecol. Econ.

    (2006)
  • C.M. Shackleton et al.

    Importance of dry woodlands and forest in rural livelihoods and poverty alleviation in South Africa

    Forest Policy Econ.

    (2007)
  • S.E. Shackleton et al.

    Links between the local trade in natural products, livelihoods and poverty alleviation in a semi-arid region of South Africa

    World Dev.

    (2008)
  • B.M. Abu et al.

    Market participation of smallholder maize farmers in the upper west region of Ghana

    Afr. J. Agric. Res.

    (2014)
  • B. Agarwal et al.

    Using community forest management to achieve. REDD + goals in realizing REDD

    (2010)
  • D.A. Alene et al.

    Smallholder marketed surplus and input use under transactions costs: maize supply and fertilizer demand in Kenya

    Food Policy

    (2008)
  • B. Ambrose-Oji

    The contribution of NTFPs to the livelihoods of the ‘forest poor’: evidence from the tropical forest zone of south-west Cameroon

    Int. For. Rev.

    (2003)
  • A. Angelsen et al.

    Exploring the forest-poverty link: key concepts, issues and research implications

  • A. Angelsen et al.

    Environmental income and rural livelihoods: a global-comparative analysis

    World Dev.

    (2014)
  • F. Areki et al.

    Fiji: commerce, carving and customary tenure

  • S. Bahta et al.

    Policy options for improving market participation and sales of smallholder crop producers: a case study of the Free State Province of South Africa

    Afr. J. Agric. Res.

    (2012)
  • L.J.S. Baiyegunhi et al.

    Vulnerability and poverty dynamics in rural areas of Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

    Ghana J. Dev. Stud.

    (2011)
  • R. Benfica et al.

    interlinked transactions in cash cropping economies: the determinants of farmer participation and performance in the Zambezi River Valley of Mozambique

  • D. Boughton et al.

    Market participation by rural households in a low-income country: an asset-based approach applied to Mozambique

    Faith Econ.

    (2007)
  • CIFOR

    Forests and non-timber forest products

    (2011)
  • M.L. Cocks et al.

    ‘Rich man poor man’ — inter-household and community factors influencing the use of wild plant resources amongst rural households in South Africa

    Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol.

    (2008)
  • M. Cocks et al.

    Cultural importance of non-timber forest products: opportunities they pose for bio-cultural diversity in dynamic societies

  • W. Cocksedge

    Incorporating non-timber forest products into sustainable forest management: an overview for forest managers

    (2006)
  • H. Cosyns et al.

    Can commercialisation of NTFPs alleviate poverty? A case study of Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Pax. Kernel marketing in Cameroon

    J. Agric. Rural. Dev. Trop. Subtrop.

    (2011)
  • D’Hase L, Vermeulen H. 2011. The food security status of Limpopo Province: archive of interdisciplinary discussion...
  • D.B.K. Dovie

    Rural economy and livelihoods from the non-timber forest products trade. Compromising sustainability in southern Africa?

    Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol.

    (2003)
  • D.B.K. Dovie et al.

    Monetary valuation of livelihoods for understanding the composition and complexity of rural households

    Agric. Hum. Values

    (2005)
  • R. Dunlap et al.

    Measuring endorsement of the new ecological paradigm: a revised NEP scale

    Promoting Environ.

    (2000)
  • P.G.H. Frost

    A Guide to Sustainable use of Mopane Worms

    (2005)
  • M. Getachew et al.

    Economic dependence on forest resources: a case study from Dendi District, Ethiopia

    Forest Econ. Policy

    (2007)
  • J. Ghazoul

    Mopane woodlands and the Mopane worm: enhancing Rural Livelihoods and Resource Sustainability

  • S.J. Goetz

    A selectivity model of household food marketing behavior in Sub-Saharan Africa

    Am. J. Agric. Econ.

    (1992)
  • Cited by (20)

    • Use of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal in aquafeeds for a sustainable aquaculture industry: A review of past and future needs

      2022, Aquaculture
      Citation Excerpt :

      Globally, there are one million insect’s species has been reported so far. Those insects are not only used in aquaculture but also used for human consumption (Baiyegunhi and Oppong, 2016). There are several insect species including grasshoppers (Kim et al., 2019), termites (Kinyuru et al., 2013), caterpillars (Mba et al., 2019), houseflies (Jiao et al., 2019), weevils (Parker et al., 2017), beetles (Yang et al., 2014) and some other insect species has also been reported for rich sources of protein.

    • Progress and challenges of insects as food and feed

      2022, New Aspects of Meat Quality: From Genes to Ethics, Second Edition
    • The production and commercialization of palm wine from Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata in Zitundo area, southern Mozambique

      2018, South African Journal of Botany
      Citation Excerpt :

      At Huco tappers sell palm wine from their houses, and therefore do not incur any transportation costs, while the Zitundo-sede site is located the farthest away from the Phuza market, therefore requiring high transport costs. Baiyegunhi and Oppong (2016) observed a similar result within South Africa where there was a decrease in the level of mopane worm trade with increasing distance to the market. Palm tapping is clearly an important poverty reducing activity in Zitundo.

    • Insects as Human Food

      2018, Ethnozoology Animals in our Lives
    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text