The use of microbial transglutaminase and soy protein isolate to enhance retention of capsaicin in capsaicin-enriched layered noodles
Graphical abstract
Highlights
► Specialty noodles with capsaicin-enriched core. ► Sandwiched with two layers of soy protein and microbial transglutaminase. ► Microbial transglutaminase enhances capsaicin retain-ability.
Introduction
Capsaicin is the predominate substance responsible for the hot character of chili peppers, which is known to exert the function of anti-obesity through increasing the energy expenditure and decreasing the appetite. After ingestion of capsaicin, the energy metabolism is enhanced via the activation of sympathetic nervous system (Kang et al., 2010; Westerterp-Plantenga, Diepvens, Jossen, Berube-Parent, & Tremblay, 2006). This causes an increased secretion of catecholamine from the adrenal medulla (Yoshioka et al., 1999) and the expression of certain fat degrading proteins (Joo, Kim, Choi, & Yun, 2009). The feeling of satiety is promoted and the energy intake is reduced (Reinbach, Smeets, Martinussen, Moller, & Westerterp-Plantenga, 2009; Westerterp-Plantenga, Smeets, & Lejeune, 2005). However, the application of capsaicin in the food industry for treating or preventing obesity is limited because the effective dose of capsaicin application in food for weight control (10–30 mg) (Reinbach, Martinussen, & Moller, 2010; Yoshioka et al., 2004; Yoshioka et al., 1999) is much higher than the limitation of intake for normal people (1–10 mg) (Craft & Porreca, 1992; Yoshioka et al., 2004; Yoshioka, St-Pierre, Suzuki, & Tremblay, 1998). A product that is directly incorporated with capsaicin may be too hot for most consumers to consume. This calls for products that can deliver capsaicin in a controlled manner. As such, some cutting-edge companies have already introduced delivery systems that are based on encapsulation technologies using capsules that are designed to release capsaicin in the intestine, but not in the stomach, to reduce irritation and pain. While this approach is suitable for nutraceutical applications, more innovation is desirable in order to achieve similar functions in food products.
“Layered Noodle” (LN) is a specialty noodle product that is prepared by sandwiching a capsaicin-enriched dough (CED) layer with two gastro-resistant dough layers, which might be a good candidate to carry the functions of capsaicin (Li, Liong, & Easa, 2011). This idea is possible because many Asian consumers choose to slurp the noodle rather than chewing them extensively during eating. Because a quantity of capsaicin is retained in the middle layer of the LN, consumers should experience reduced pain in the mouth. The release of capsaicin in the stomach and intestine will be expected to be controlled thus reducing irritation (Li et al., 2011).
To achieve the controlled-release properties, the overall structure of the LN should be strong and resistant to breakdown, in order for it to retain capsaicin and release it in a controlled manner. Microbial transglutaminase (MTG) is a thermal stable enzyme, which is isolated from Streptoverticillium sp. and legally to be assessed as a processing aid food enzyme. MTG has great potential to be used in the food industry as an agent to improve firmness, elasticity and water-holding capacity of food through the mild enzyme reactions (Aalami & Leelavathi, 2008; Basman, Köksel, & Arli, 2006). After incorporating MTG, high molecular weight polymers were formed through ε-(γ-Glu)Lys bonds, which reinforce the network structure and modified the properties of the products (Motoki & Seguro, 1998). The effects of MTG can be obtained in various kinds of noodles and pasta, but the degree of change in the physical properties varies with the sorts of products. By adjusting the amount of MTG, the textural qualities of noodles/pasta can be controlled (Kuraishi, Yamazaki, & Susa, 2001). Furthermore, since the cross-links introduced by MTG are heat-stable, the modified structures of noodle are retained for longer even after cooking. Therefore, the use of MTG at different levels might be a safe and efficient way to develop the gastro-resistant properties of LN enriched with capsaicin.
Soy protein isolate (SPI) has been broadly used as the functional ingredient and texture enhancer in the food industry (Tang, Wu, Chen, & Yang, 2006). SPI that is treated with additional food-based protein cross-linking enzyme, such as MTG, has been shown to enhance the network structure and gastro-resistant properties of SPI gels and noodles (Gan, Cheng, & Easa, 2008; Gan, Ong, Wong, & Easa, 2009; Yeoh, Alkarkhi, Ramli, & Easa, 2011). Thus, MTG treated SPI that is incorporated with LN could function as the gastro-resistant layers that enhance the capsaicin retention of LN.
We have described the basic preparation of the so-called layered noodles (Li et al., 2011). Other than this, there is no report in the literature that describes the preparation or evaluation of layered noodles for controlling the release of capsaicin. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the textural and breakdown properties, capsaicin retention, microstructures and sensory characteristics of the layered noodles as a function of MTG concentration.
Section snippets
Materials
The basic ingredients for noodle preparation (i.e., wheat flour, kansui reagent and chili powder) were purchased from a local supermarket (Tesco Extra, Penang, Malaysia). The food grade soy protein isolate (SPI) was purchased from Sim Company Sdn. Bhd., Penang. Microbial Transglutaminase (MTG) was purchased from Ajinomoto Co., Inc. (Tokyo, Japan). The acetonitrile and capsaicin standard reagents used for capsaicin content determination were HPLC grade and purchased from Fluka, Switzerland.
Description of the LN samples
Typically LN was wide and straight with a flat surface. The cross-section of cooked LN is shown in Fig. 1 in which the reddish CED layer is sandwiched by two pale-yellow gastro-resistant dough layers. The surfaces of all LN were smooth and the three layers remained intact after cooking. The LN containing MTG (0.5MTG LN, 1.0MTG LN and 1.5MTG LN) were similar in appearance to the Control LN except they were more slippery on the surface and harder in texture. The thickness of the noodles ranged
Conclusion
This paper describes the effect of incorporating different levels of microbial transglutaminase on textural, tensile, breakdown, capsaicin release or retention and sensory properties of layered noodles that were prepared by sandwiching a chili powder-enriched dough with two gastro-resistant dough layers. Compared to other noodles, 1.5MTG LN had the highest capsaicin retention, strongest textural and mechanical properties and densest microstructure. However, the highest sensory acceptability was
Acknowledgments
The FRGS (PTEKIND/671199) and financial support of Graduate Assistance-ship for Miss Li Ling Yun from University Sains Malaysia, Penang, are gratefully acknowledged.
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