Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews
Endocrine disrupting chemical Bisphenol A and its potential effects on female health
Introduction
Progressive industrialization, urbanization, and consumerism have led to environmental pollution and affects both wildlife and human health. The production of a large amount of biomedical and synthetic chemicals that lead to unwanted pollutants has lead to the concerns over health effects of these chemicals on wildlife and humans for several years. These chemicals are ubiquitous and are dispersed in soil, water, air, and food. Among these chemicals, the more harmful environmental contaminants are grouped into endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Endocrine-disrupting chemicals also called ‘‘endocrine disruptors’’(EDs), represent a group of widespread pollutants and are defined by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as ‘‘Exogenous agents that interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, metabolism, binding action, or elimination of natural blood-borne hormones that are present in the body and are responsible for homeostasis, reproduction and developmental processes’’ [1].
A large range of chemicals having the activity of endocrine disruption has been documented around the world by environmental agencies such as synthetic and natural hormones, by-products of industries, pesticides, pollutants, consumer products, and components of plastics which are produced in volumes of millions of tons per year. Bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), dioxins, fungicides (vinclozolin), pesticides [DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), methoxychlor, chlorpyrifos] phytoestrogens [genistein and coumestrol] and pharmaceutical agents [DES (diethylstilbestrol)] are the most widespread contaminators. EDCs are present everywhere on the planet and both human and wildlife is getting continuously exposed to these chemicals which lead to adverse effects. The timing of exposure is critical. The Developing fetuses and neonates are most susceptible to endocrine disruption. These EDCs enter and accumulate in the food chain up to the human level. These chemicals have been found in human adipose tissue [2] and biological fluids like urine [3], serum [4], milk [5], and amniotic fluid [6].
Human exposure to EDCs is rapidly gaining global attention due to their association with altered human health as reported in many epidemiological and experimental studies. EDCs intervene with the sex steroid hormones synthesis, metabolism, and action which, in turn, result in developmental and fertility problems in both men and women. EDCs are associated with an increase in the incidence of cancer such as breast, prostate, and testicular cancers, the uterine feminization of newborn boys, diminished sperm count, motility and abnormal morphology of sperm, birth defects like hypospadias and cryptorchidism, early puberty, gestation diabetes, reduced birth weight, endometriosis, and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Some EDCs have obesogenic effects resulting in energy homeostasis disruptions. EDCs are linked with obesity and adiposity as well as other metabolic disorders like metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes [[7], [8], [9]]. Further, the most potent EDC i.e., BPA has been reported to influence several pathologies right as endometriosis, development of ovarian cysts, infertility, ovarian and breast cancer, poor neonatal outcomes, reduced sperm production, count, and motility among others [10,11]. BPA is also considered a potential developmental neurotoxicant at low doses [12].
Section snippets
Mechanism of action of EDCs
EDs are known to act through nuclear receptors, non-nuclear steroid hormone receptors (e.g., membrane Estrogen Receptors), non-steroid receptors (e.g., neurotransmitter receptors like the nor epinephrine receptor, dopamine receptor, and serotonin receptor), orphan receptors [e.g., aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)], enzymatic pathways concerned with steroid metabolism and/or biosynthesis and several other mechanisms that come together at endocrine and reproductive systems as depicted in Fig. 1.
Human Exposure to EDC’s
The human population is exposed to EDs by a variety of routes like.
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Food, water, air
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Industrial products (including personal care goods)
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Transfer across the placenta from mother to fetus or via lactation from mother to infant if EDCs are present in her body.
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Children because of their hand-to-mouth practice can have higher exposures to EDCs.
Further, the age or period at which an individual is exposed to EDs is also critical. The fetuses and infants are more disposed to the detrimental effects of EDs
Potential effects of EDC’s on human health
The body of evidence showing that EDCs may contribute to the health and environmental problems is growing. Evidence suggest that EDCs compromise the.
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The mechanisms of thyroid signaling
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Tissues and organs associated with energy metabolism
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Control of glucose
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Satiety and development of fat cells
The possible and known effects of EDCs have been summarized by recent reports and include increased cancer risk like breast, testicular, and prostate cancers, in utero feminization of newborn boys, decreased
Bisphenol A- an endocrine disruptor and its routes of exposure
Bisphenol A (BPA) is the most extensively studied endocrine-disrupting chemical worldwide. It is one of the most abundant chemicals produced globally with an annual production of about 6 billion pounds [16]. Alexander Pavlovich Dianin was the first who synthesized BPA in 1891 and then Charles Edward Dodds, a British chemist acknowledged the existence of BPA as an artificial estrogen in 1930 [25]. It is a diphenyl compound that in para position contains two hydroxyl groups, making it extremely
Conclusion
In summary, this review demonstrates that EDCs contribute to the adverse effects on human health including reproductive health which is a global concern. Exposure to EDCs starts in utero and continues throughout life. The exposure affects not only the individual concerned but also the subsequent generations through transgenerational epigenetic mechanisms and influences the population for decades. Thus, there is an urgent need to reduce the ill effects of EDCs which can be addressed by acquiring
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Declaration of competing interest
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