Edible wild mushrooms of the Western Ghats: Data on the ethnic knowledge

The edible wild mushrooms are most important in food security of ethnic groups and tribals throughout the world. Various indigenous strategies are followed to trace wild mushrooms suitable for human consumption. Data presented in this article projects ethnic knowledge on 51 edible wild mushrooms (in 23 genera) in the Western Ghats region of India. Information collected with support of ethnic groups/tribals pertains to habitats, substrates, mutualistic association, extent of availability, extent of edibility and method of processing of wild mushrooms. Extensive field visits and interactions with ethnic groups were performed to collect the data on each mushroom. Initially, most of these mushrooms were identified based on the indigenous methods and designated with vernacular names (Are-Gowda, Kodava and Tulu). Based on macromorphology (in field) and micromorphology (in laboratory), each mushroom was identified with its systematic name. Among the 51 wild mushrooms irrespective of extent of availability, the most preferred include Astraeus hygrometricus, Clitocybe infundibuliformis, Fistulina hepatica, Lentinus sajor-caju, Pleurotus (5 spp.) and Scleroderma citrinum and Termitomyces (18 spp.). This data forecasts the importance of documentation of traditional knowledge, protection of habitats, management of resources (tree species and substrates) and sustainable exploitation of wild mushrooms.


a b s t r a c t
The edible wild mushrooms are most important in food security of ethnic groups and tribals throughout the world. Various indigenous strategies are followed to trace wild mushrooms suitable for human consumption. Data presented in this article projects ethnic knowledge on 51 edible wild mushrooms (in 23 genera) in the Western Ghats region of India. Information collected with support of ethnic groups/tribals pertains to habitats, substrates, mutualistic association, extent of availability, extent of edibility and method of processing of wild mushrooms. Extensive field visits and interactions with ethnic groups were performed to collect the data on each mushroom. Initially, most of these mushrooms were identified based on the indigenous methods and designated with vernacular names (Are-Gowda, Kodava and Tulu). Based on macromorphology (in field) and micromorphology (in laboratory), each mushroom was identified with its systematic name. Among the 51 wild mushrooms irrespective of extent of availability, the most preferred include Astraeus hygrometricus, Clitocybe infundibuliformis, Fistulina hepatica, Lentinus sajor-caju, Pleurotus (5 spp.) and Scleroderma citrinum and Termitomyces (18 spp.). This data forecasts the importance of documentation of traditional knowledge, protection of habitats, management of resources (tree species and substrates) and sustainable exploitation of wild mushrooms.  Without overlap, wood/monocot stub and soil consists of 18 (12 genera) and 33 (11 genera) edible mushrooms, respectively indicating their substrate specificity.
The data project the importance of geographic location, substrate and ecological conditions suitable for growth of edible mushrooms, which is of immense value for conservation.
There is a great variation in the quality within the substrate preferred by mushrooms and likely this factor influences the extent of occurrence (biomass) and nutritional attributes.
The data on type of mushroom, ethnic name, habitats, substrates, extent of edibility, extent of availability (biomass), mutualistic associations (ectomycorrhizal and termites) and their nutritional values stimulates further research.
Owing to nutritional and nutraceutical significance of edible mushrooms, our data forecasts strategies for restoration/conservation of habitats and possibilities of ex situ cultivation as measure of food security and health of tribals.
This data also forecast the value of edible wild mushrooms especially geographic indications and intellectual property rights for indigenous knowledge and food security.

Data
Edible mushrooms constitutes alternative source of food against plant-or animal-derived food sources [1]. Despite cultivation of a few mushrooms in large scale [2], wild edible mushrooms are the major concern in food security of ethnic and tribal population [1]. Other than nutritional value, wild mushrooms are also contributed significantly as nutraceuticals [3]. The Western Ghats region of India constitutes a major hotspot of diversity of wild mushrooms [4]. Indigenous techniques of identification of habitats, edible mushrooms, substrate preference, collection and processing are yet to be explicitly documented. Table 1 composed of specific questionnaire adapted to document mainly the habitats, ethnic names, substrates, methods of processing (e.g. cooking, fried in oil, partially burn and pickling/salting), extent of occurrence and extent of edibility of wild mushrooms by the ethnic groups. To avoid overlap, separate questionnaire was used for each mushroom. Tables 2 and 3 possess systematic names, ethnic names, substrate preference, extent of occurrence and extent of edibility on wood/monocot stub and soils, respectively. Ethnic name of mushroom mainly dependent on the substrate (wood/monocot stub or soil), macromorphology (shape, size, color, difference in umbo and aroma/fragrance) and the names are often overlapping. For instance, the ethnic name is same for different mushrooms growing on a specific type of soil (Phlebopus spp. and Termitomyces spp.). The name differs for a specific mushroom when it grows on different type of wood/monocot stub (Fistulina spp. and Pleurotus spp.). Figs. 1 and 2 consist of photographs of selected wild mushrooms of interest to ethnic groups grown on wood/monocot stub and soil, respectively. In addition to 51 wild edible mushrooms documented in this paper, several others are also recognized by the ethnic groups/ tribes by different strategies (e.g. Agaricus spp., Chlorophyllum spp., Lactarius spp., Lycoperdon spp., Macrolepiota spp., Russula spp. and Volvariella spp.). This reveals the potentiality of indigenous knowledge of ethnic groups/tribes and further insights are necessary to document such aspects explicitly for future benefits.

Questionnaire
We compiled the data on the ethnic knowledge acquired on edible mushrooms in different habitats, substrates and tree species based on specific questionnaire ( Table 1). The ethnic names of mushrooms are dependent on the habitat and tribes inhabiting in specific region (forest, grassland and orchard), supporting woody (and monocot stub) substrate (logs, bark, twigs, shells of nuts and roots as ectomycorrhizal), local name of tree species (dead part of tree and tree holes), soils (termite mound, humus, bunds of paddy fields), growth of mushroom (overall nature of group of mushroom), extent of mushroom biomass (rare, moderate and profuse) and extent of edibility (low, moderate and high). Name of each mushroom has a suffix 'kum' (¼ mushroom), if it grows on a specific wood/ monocot stub of a tree/plant species, it has prefix of specific vernacular name of tree followed by 'mara' (¼ tree). Several wild mushrooms are marketed by ethnic groups/tribes for their livelihood. Less, moderate and high Any special consideration for identification?
? Does the mushroom occur seasonally or in off season?
? Does the mushroom appear in same place often?
? Any specific effort for grow mushroom ex situ?
? Any specific method for sampling and transport?
? Which method followed for processing?
? Any medicinal use of mushroom?

Ecological groups
Based on ethnic knowledge of 17 tribals of Kodagu region of the Western Ghats, we visited 10 habitats, evaluated wood/monocot stub of about 30 plant species and screened about 10 soils types (Tables 2 and 3). Edible mushrooms of the Western Ghats sampled in this survey have been broadly classified into two major ecological groups: a) wood-/monocot stub-dependent mushrooms; b) soildependent mushrooms. Further, soil-dependent mushrooms could be sub-divided into: a) different soils; b) ectomycorrhizal with roots; c) association with termites. The quantity as well as quality of wood/monocot stub materials differed in different locations surveyed. There are several varieties of wood/hard materials (e.g. softwood, hardwood, bamboo and monocot stub) and their niches (fallen, standing dead, bark, tree holes, canopy and roots). Similarly, the quality of soil also varies in different locations assessed (e.g. humus, termite mound, termite-infested soil, lateritic soil and soil embedded with leaf litter/wood pieces/shredded wood/wood powder). Such differences in substrates have major influence on extent of occurrence (biomass), distribution and diversity of wild mushrooms. Human interferences have negative impact on the occurrence and diversity of wild mushrooms especially tampering organic matter (deforestation, removal or extraction of wood and extensive pruning of tree canopies in agroforests) and other actions which enhances soil erosion (clearing vegetation, leveling the terrain, destruction of termite mounds and transformation of grasslands) have direct or indirect impact on the diversity, distribution and biomass of wild mushrooms. Among 33 wild mushrooms occurred on wood/monocot stub, Pleurotus djamar occurred on the highest number of materials (9), followed by Pleurotus flabellatus (8), Fistulina hepatica (7), Auricularia auricula-judae (6) and the rest of the species occurred on 1-4 wood/monocot stubs (Table 2). Substrate choices of soil-dependent mushrooms are narrow and occurred between one and three types of soil (Table 3). However, such narrow specificity revealed two major niches of mushrooms like ectomycorrhizal with specific tree species (1-3) and termite mound/termite infested soil (1).
Ethnic groups and tribals are aware that some edible wild mushrooms erupt suddenly. For instance, Fistulina hepatica occurs during untimely rains especially in tree holes (post-monsoon: November-December or summer: March-April). They also aware that some hallucinogenic mushrooms grow on degrading grass and herbivore dung (e.g. Coprinus spp. and Psylocybe spp.). Almost all wild mushrooms are consumed in tender stage, ethnic groups/tribals are aware of availability of tender wild mushrooms in a specific location, substrate and season. Some people need first-aid or to be hospitalized for treatment as they consume unknowingly the mature instead of tender mushrooms. For example, from tender to mature, the gills of Agaricus spp. turn into purple; the white flesh of Astraeus spp., Scleroderma spp. and Lycoperdon spp. turns into spores. If the time lapse between collection and consumption is wide, which may leading to maturity of some mushrooms thus becoming unfit for consumption.

Analysis
The number of geographic locations visited, tribes consulted, wood/monocot plant species screened and substrates surveyed have been documented. The wild mushrooms are identified based on the specific ethnic/traditional knowledge: a) Presence of insects and larvae (Drosophila, ants, housefly and maggots); b) Typical strong almond-like aroma for all edible wild mushrooms (sensed by a few ethnic people or tribals); c) Macromorphology (shape, size, colour, surface features, shape of umbo and presence of pseudorhzae), habitat and substrate also decides edibility (e.g. Fistulina, Pleurotus and Termitomyces); d) Mutualistic associations with plants (ectomycorrhizae) or animals (termites) (e.g. Astraeus, Scleroderma and Termitomyces); e) Change in colour of gills or endoperidial flesh (white to coloured) will decide its edibility (usually such change in colour due to maturation is associated with food poisoning or indicates non-edibility).

Conflict of Interest
There is no conflicts of interest to publish this research paper