The Chelonian Respiratory System

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2011.03.005Get rights and content

Section snippets

Anatomy and physiology

Chelonians and other reptiles have distinct anatomic features of the respiratory tract that distinguish them from other vertebrates. They have an unbranched interpulmonary bronchus and, therefore, no bronchial tree and they lack the alveoli that are present in mammals. The gas exchange sites in reptiles are called ediculi and faveoli, and consist of small crypts instead of alveolar sacs.1

Due to the presence of the bony shell, chelonian lungs have limited expansion capabilities. Chelonians

Physical Exam

The bony shell of chelonians presents certain diagnostic challenges to the clinician. If a limb or the head can be grasped and manually extended, it prevents the patient from retreating into the shell and examination and sampling can proceed. Large chelonians may require sedation. A thorough history must be taken before examination of the patient. The diet, environment, location of purchase or adoption, exposure to other chelonians, and medical history are all crucial considerations to proper

Bacterial

Bacterial infections of the respiratory tract are common in chelonians. Poor water quality, inadequate heat, and poor nutrition are often predisposing factors. Most bacterial pathogens in chelonians are gram-negative organisms such as Klebsiella sp, Pseudomonas sp, and Aeromonas sp.15 All reptiles have gram-negative organisms as part of the normal flora of their gastrointestinal tract and consideration must be given to the species of bacteria grown and the location that was cultured. Initial

Hypovitaminosis A

Hypovitaminosis A is epidemic in aquatic and semiaquatic turtles adapted to wild diets high in vitamin A. This syndrome was first described in aquatic turtles in 1967.72 Clinical signs of this disease are attributable to squamous metaplasia and immune suppression. Mild cases usually present with bilateral periorbital swelling. Secondary bacterial respiratory infections are common in more severely affected individuals (Fig. 6). Aural abscesses and caseous debris covering the cornea are also

First page preview

First page preview
Click to open first page preview
View PDF

References (79)

  • T.H. Boyer

    Hypovitaminosis A and hypervitaminosis A

  • S.L. Barten

    Shell damage

  • T.H. Boyer

    Emergency care of reptiles

    Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim

    (1998)
  • D. Martinez-Jimenez et al.

    Emergency care of reptiles

    Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim

    (2007)
  • J. Wyneken

    Respiratory anatomy—form and function in reptiles

    Exotic DVM

    (2001)
  • J. Wyneken

    The structure of cardiopulmonary systems of turtles

  • T.H. Boyer et al.

    Turtles, tortoises and terrapins

  • S.J. Hernandez-Divers et al.

    Reptile respiration and controlled ventilation during anesthesia

    Proc Assoc Rep Amphib Vet

    (2002)
  • R.A. Bennett

    Anesthesia

  • I.V. Sykes et al.

    Reptile hematology

    Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim

    (2008)
  • S.J. Hernandez-Divers et al.

    Clinical applications of a supravertebral (subcarapacial) vein in chelonians

    Proc Assoc Rep Amphib Vet

    (2001)
  • T.W. Campbell et al.

    Hematology of reptiles

  • S.J. Hernandes-Divers

    Diagnostic techniques

  • T. Bennett

    Tips for selected clinical techniques in anurans and chelonians

    Exotic DVM

    (2010)
  • M. Gumpenberger

    Computed tomography in chelonians

    Proc Assoc Rep Amphib Vet

    (2002)
  • J. Straub et al.

    Magnetic resonance imaging in chelonians

    Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med

    (2002)
  • G. Soldati et al.

    Detection of mycobacteria and chlamydiae in granulomatous inflammation of retiles: a retrospective study

    Vet Pathol

    (2004)
  • E.R. Jacobsen et al.

    Chronic upper respiratory tract disease of free ranging desert tortoises (Xerobates agassazii)

    J Wildl Dis

    (1991)
  • M.B. Brown et al.

    Mycoplasma agassizii causes upper respiratory disease in the desert tortoise

    Infect Immun

    (1994)
  • D.R. Brown et al.

    Mycoplasma testudineum sp. nov., from a desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) with upper respiratory tract disease

    Int J Syst Evol Microbiol

    (2004)
  • A.C. Hill

    Mycoplasma testudinis a new species isolated from a tortoise

    Int J Syst Bacteriol

    (1985)
  • J.F. Soares et al.

    Prevalence of Mycoplasma agassizii and chelonian herpesvirus in captive tortoises (Testudo sp) in the United Kingdom

    J Zoo Wildl Med

    (2004)
  • S.F. Feldman et al.

    A novel mycoplasma detected in association with upper respiratory tract disease syndrome in free-ranging eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) in Virginia

    J Wildl Dis

    (2006)
  • I.M. Schumacher et al.

    Detection of antibodies to a pathogenic mycoplasma in desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) with upper respiratory tract disease

    J Clin Microbiol

    (1993)
  • L.D. Wendland et al.

    Improved enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to reveal Mycoplasma agassizii exposure: a valuable tool in the management of environmentally sensitive tortoise populations

    Clin Vaccine Immunol

    (2007)
  • D.R. Brown et al.

    Application of diagnostic tests for mycoplasmal infections of desert and gopher tortoises, with management recommendations

    Chelonian Conserv Biol

    (2002)
  • A.J. Johnson et al.

    Seroprevalence of Mycoplasma agassizii and tortoise herpes virus in captive desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) from the greater Barstow area of the Mojave Desert

    Cal J Arid Environ

    (2006)
  • R.H. Biermann et al.

    First isolation of a herpesvirus from tortoises with diphtheroid-necrotizing stomatitis. Second World Congress of Herpetology

    Abstr

    (1994)
  • L.H. Herbst et al.

    Comparative pathology and pathogenesis of spontaneous and experimentally induced fibropapillomas of green turtles (Chelonia mydas)

    Vet Pathol

    (1999)

    • Cited by (7)

    • Comparison of intramuscular alfaxalone with medetomidine-ketamine for inducing anaesthesia in Trachemys scripta spp. undergoing sterilization

      2023, Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia

    • Respiratory Disorders in Chelonians

      2021, Veterinary Clinics of North America - Exotic Animal Practice
      Citation Excerpt :

      Several diagnostic options are available for Mycoplasma including culture, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and PCR. Bacterial culture is often unrewarding due to the slow growing and fastidious nature of Mycoplasma.31,32 ELISA is based on antibody response of either serum or plasma and indicates exposure.

    • Computed tomography of the lungs of healthy captive red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria)

      2020, Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine
      Citation Excerpt :

      Due to nonspecific and delayed clinical signs, exams become essential for diagnosis [13–15]. Radiographs have been useful for evaluating lung disease in testudines; however, their sensitivity for evaluation of soft tissues is limited due to the physical barriers imposed by the carapace and structures in the coelomic cavity, which causes tissue overlap and hinders a detailed analysis of the lung parenchyma [5,6,9]. CT provides an excellent view of the pulmonary parenchyma when compared with other diagnostic techniques used in the evaluation of red-footed tortoises.

    • Pharmacokinetic characteristics of florfenicol in green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) after intramuscular administration

      2024, Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics

    • Differences in the anatomy of the lower respiratory tract in selected species of the order Testudines

      2022, Veterinarni Medicina

    • Bacterial pneumonia in red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonaria): Clinical aspects, microbiological, radiological and therapeutic

      2014, Pesquisa Veterinaria Brasileira
    View all citing articles on Scopus

    The author has nothing to disclose and received no funding.

    View full text
    Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.