Gender and socioeconomic related differences in performance based ICT competences
Introduction
The acronym ICT stands for information and communication technology and refers in principle to all possible technologies that are used for locating and processing information, communicating and producing digital media such as computer technology, smartphones, the Internet, multimedia, etcetera (Anderson, 2008; Ito et al., 2008). In this study, ICT is limited to the use of computers and the Internet. Mastery of ICT competences is considered as an essential key competence to function in our present economy and society (Bunz et al., 2007, European Commission, 2007). Computers and the Internet – and especially the ability to operate them – are considered as important in order to develop skills for social interaction, civic participation, information retrieval and processing, and professional success and advancement (Sieverding and Koch, 2009, Zhong, 2011). For these purposes, some national governments have recently designed and administered formal expectations to schools in terms of ICT competence frameworks or standards (Vanderlinde, van Braak, & Hermans, 2009). Consequently, ICT competences can be considered as educational outcomes that students need to acquire. As schools are expected to take the initiative to develop students' ICT competences, a valid assessment of students' ICT competences is necessary.
With regard to the assessment of ICT competences, a distinction can be made between research using self-reported measures (indirect measurement) and research using observation and performance based measures (direct measurement) (Litt, 2013). The literature indicates that the main research interest is directed towards self-reported measures of ICT competences and ICT self-efficacy (van Deursen and van Dijk, 2011, Hargittai, 2005, Meelissen, 2008) as such measures easily permit the collection and analysis of data from big samples. In this context, several self-report instruments have been developed and used to measure certain aspects of students' ICT competences or students' ICT competences in general, such as the general internet self-efficacy scale (GISE) and the communicative internet self-efficacy scale (CISE) of Liang and Tsai (2008), or the online exploration and online communication scale of Tsai and Tsai (2010). Torkzadeh and Van Dyke (2002) have operationalized Internet self-efficacy as students' confidence in browsing, system manipulation and encryption/decryption. Bunz' (2004) Computer-Email-Web fluency scale measures students' self-perceived ability in general computer use, e-mail use, Web navigation and Web editing. Although these measures are useful for investigating students' self-perceived abilities within large samples, they are less appropriate for measuring students' actual ICT competences. It is well-known that ability measures that are based on students' own judgment cope with validity-problems of self-reported bias (Ballantine et al., 2007, Bunz et al., 2007, van Deursen and van Dijk, 2011, Hakkarainen et al., 2000). Students can over and underestimate their own ICT competences (Merritt, Smith, & Di Renzo, 2005). As such, self-perceived or self-reported measures are not always a valid representation of their actual ability to use ICT.
Some researchers have tried to tackle these shortcomings of self-reported measurements by assessing students' ICT competences in a more direct way, i.e., through observation and performance based ICT competence studies. In general, such studies involve students performing actions on a computer while being observed and evaluated by the researcher (Litt, 2013). Performance-based assessment tasks are valuable because they guarantee direct and authentic appraisals of complex competences (Messick, 1994). As such, it can be expected that performance-based tests using authentic tasks are more valid for measuring the complexity of students' ICT competences. Although these observations and performance-based measures have higher validity, they are also time consuming, expensive, more difficult to replicate and more difficult to conduct on large samples. In order to cope with some of these limitations, international large-scale assessment initiatives have recently been set up to measure students' ICT competences in a direct and standardized way using computer based software, such as ICILS or iSkills (Fraillon and Ainley, 2010, Katz, 2007). Although these studies have great scientific value, they do not address the ICT competences of primary school students.
The general purpose of this study is twofold: 1) First, we wish to tackle the problem of indirect assessment by outlining the design of a computer-based assessment test that can be used to measure primary school students' ICT competences in a direct and valid way; 2) Second, we wish to investigate primary school students' ICT competences by describing their performance on the developed test. For this, special attention will be paid to the relationship between gender and socioeconomic status on the one hand, and students' ICT competences on the other. We consider this essential, as previous research states that both of these variables are important correlates (Bunz et al., 2007, Claro et al., 2012, Volman et al., 2005), but offers inconclusive results on the matter. Moreover, most studies that investigate the relationship with gender and SES are conducted from the perspective of self-assessment rather than focusing on actual, valid measures of ICT competence.
Section snippets
ICT competences
In general, ICT competences refer to a student's ability to use information and communication technology. In the last 35 years, the interpretation of the concept of ICT competence has gone through three stages (Martin, 2006). During a first stage, ICT competences referred to basic skills incorporating specialist knowledge, basic programming and computer mastery (up until the mid-1980s). In the second stage, ICT competences were characterized as practical application skills for using common
Research aims
The general purpose of this study is twofold. First, this study aims to tackle the shortcoming that research focusing on ICT competences is mostly conducted through indirect measurement. As mentioned above, these indirect measurements suffer from self-reported bias, as students can over-and underestimate their own ICT competences. Although some direct assessment initiatives with good scientific value have been set up, these are often based on observation, making them expensive, difficult to
Developing a test framework
A first step into the process of test development is the delineation of the construct of ICT competence into a test framework. The test framework delineates and operationalizes the concept of ICT competence to be measured, i.e., it describes the scope of the construct to be measured (APA-AERA-NCME, 1999). More specifically, it contains all the competences and skills that will be measured with the test. The delineation of the test framework is guided by a content analysis of the construct. Based
Second purpose: primary school students' ICT competences
In the second part of the study we attempt to provide insight into primary school students' ICT competences, and how differences in ICT competences are related to gender and SES. For this purpose, the results of a first administration of the developed test are discussed. As the test measures ICT competences in a direct way, the results provide a first insight into primary school students' actual ICT competences, and more specifically into students' actual ability in digital information
Discussion
Several studies that have assessed students' ICT competences and skills can be found in the research literature. However, these studies are mostly conducted from the perspective of indirect or self-reported measurement. Consequently, these studies must cope with the problem of self-reported bias, as students can over and underestimate their own ICT competences. Moreover, most studies are conducted within the context of secondary and higher education.
The first aim of this study was to outline
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