Elsevier

Computers & Education

Volume 59, Issue 2, September 2012, Pages 339-352
Computers & Education

Digital storytelling for enhancing student academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation: A year-long experimental study

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.012Get rights and content

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of Digital storytelling (DST) on the academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation of senior high school students learning English as a foreign language. The one-year study adopted a pretest and posttest quasi-experimental design involving 110 10th grade students in two English classes. The independent variable was information technology-integrated instruction (ITII) on two different levels – lecture-type ITII (comparison group) and DST (experimental group). Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected, including English achievement and critical thinking scores, questionnaire responses for learning motivation, as well as recordings of student and teacher interviews for evaluating the effectiveness of DST in learning. Descriptive analysis, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), and qualitative content analysis was used for evaluating the obtained data. Our findings indicate that DST participants performed significantly better than lecture-type ITII participants in terms of English achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation. Interview results highlight the important educational value of DST, as both the instructor and students reported that DST increased students' understanding of course content, willingness to explore, and ability to think critically, factors which are important in preparing students for an ever-changing 21st century.

Highlights

► Digital storytelling is a transformative technology-supported pedagogy for learning. ► Specific procedures are provided for implementing DST in authentic classroom settings. ► Year-long data was collected from a quasi-experiment with 10th grade students. ► DST enhances academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation.

Introduction

21st century learning takes place in a rapidly changing and technology-suffused environment. Key characteristics of this environment include access to an abundance of information, increased classroom availability of emerging technologies (e.g., mobile learning devices, online applications, and social media tools), and the capacity to collaborate and contribute on an unprecedented scale (Malita & Martin, 2010; Robin, 2008). Researchers and practitioners in this new millennium face the challenge of preparing and equipping learners with the skills required for 21st century citizenship. Publications by the Partnership for 21st century skills (2004) and other researchers (e.g., Crane et al., 2003; Eisler, 2006; Robin, 2008) have advocated a focus on core subjects, critical thinking, and learning motivation, along with information literacy.

Seeking a synergy of technological advancements with developments in pedagogy, scholars have suggested that an ideal combination of technology-integrated learning and social constructivism is essential for attaining contemporary educational objectives (Koohang, Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009; Neo & Neo, 2010; Sadik, 2008). Social constructivist principles highlight the importance of students' collaboration in using available tools and learning activities within an authentic environment in constructing and reconstructing ideas and beliefs (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). Knowledge is not simply transmitted from instructor to student but is actively constructed by each student or group of students through their interactions with their physical, social, and technological environment (Fosnot, 1996; Prawat, 1996). Since technological devices are regarded as vital educational tools that can facilitate the co-construction of knowledge among students, many educators (Ayas, 2006; Dodge, 1995; Jonassen & Carr, 2000; Milson & Downey, 2001; Wheatley, 1991) have proposed information technology-integrated instruction (ITII) strategies based on social constructivist theory.

IT integrated learning is an important approach for contemporary educators which influences teaching, learning, curriculum, and materials (Wang & Li, 2000). However, ITII is often incorrectly applied in actual practice due to a lack of knowledge or skills in technology-supported pedagogy (Hew & Brush, 2007; Sulčič & Lesjak, 2009) required for planning and integrating technology into teaching. Technology-supported pedagogy may be classified into three categories in which technology functions as: (a) replacement, (b) amplification, or (c) transformation (Hughes, 2005). Technology as replacement involves technology serving as a different means to the same instructional goal, such as when an instructor presents a poem on a PowerPoint slide instead of writing the poem on the blackboard. Technology as amplification involves the use of technology to accomplish tasks more efficiently and effectively without altering the task (Pea, 1985). For example, when students conduct peer review using word processors rather than by hand, the author's ability to efficiently make revisions is enhanced. Finally, use of technology as transformation has the potential to provide innovative educational opportunities (Hughes, 2005) by reorganizing students' learning content, cognitive processes, and problem solving activities (Pea, 1985) or instructors' instructional practices and roles in the classroom (Reinking, 1997). However, instructors are often accustomed to employing technology in familiar and convenient ways (Hughes, 2005; Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon, & Byers, 2002), often focusing on the delivery of course content rather than innovative instructional strategies. As such, instructors may use PowerPoint slides instead of paper-based textbooks when explaining course content, which is an example of lecture-type ITII. In this case students are still passively listening to lectures, instead of actively engaging in the learning process, experiencing feelings of ownership, and taking responsibility for their learning.

Among technological advancements influencing education, the availability of advanced, low-cost, and user-friendly digital cameras and multimedia editing software (e.g., iMovie, Movie Maker, and Photo Story) offers great potential for innovative teaching and learning. These multimedia authoring and presentation tools are valid constructive tools for transformative student learning which emphasizes production, thinking, collaboration, and project management (Sadik, 2008). Instructors are able to provide comprehensive knowledge that will inspire reflective thinking for crafting transformative technology pedagogy and provide ideas and alternatives for technology use (Hughes, 2005).

Digital storytelling (DST), taking advantage of these advancements in technology and instructional design, is becoming a promising transformative technology-supported approach for enhancing learning, including subject matter content acquisition, critical thinking skills, motivation, and information literacy. Since constructing a successful DST project requires instructors to pose problems that are deeply connected with the course content, students are challenged with thinking critically about effective combinations of content and multimedia elements while considering the audience's perspective. At the same time, digital stories allow opportunities for student control of the learning process and self-expression, fostering learning confidence, task value; and learning motivation. Each story challenges students to meticulously select and edit artifacts, from personal products to other multimedia resources that meaningfully support the story and learning goals, thereby developing technology and media skills (EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative, 2007). However, research studies have not yet explored the effectiveness of different levels of ITII, such as lecture-type ITII and DST. Therefore, this study explores the impact of different levels of ITII on students' learning experiences.

Porter (2005) suggests that Digital storytelling (DST) “takes the ancient art of oral storytelling and engages a palette of technical tools to weave personal tales using images, graphics, music, and sound mixed together with the author's own story voice.” Several studies have shown that DST goes beyond the capabilities of traditional storytelling by generating student interest, concentration, and motivation, facilitating student collaboration and organization of ideas, helping students to comprehend complex learning content, and presenting knowledge in an adaptive and meaningful manner (Robin, 2005, Robin, 2008; Sadik, 2008; Van Gils, 2005). By providing systematic instructional procedures, convenient free-use software, and objective evaluation, DST constitutes a meaningful approach for energizing instructors and motivating students.

DST provides a clear procedure that helps instructors design instructional activities easily, based on the “learning by doing” immersion method of constructivism. The essence of storytelling consists of the following four phases: 1) pre-production; 2) production; 3) post-production; and 4) distribution (Chung, 2006; Gere, 2002; Kearney, 2009; Ohler, 2005; Robin, 2005). Pre-production includes five steps: a) posing questions in authentic scenarios, b) exploring topical information, c) writing the script and eliciting peer review, d) performing oral storytelling, and e) designing a story map and storyboard. At the beginning of class, the instructor poses certain questions about a topic based on contexts or experiences related to the students' lives and interests in order to encourage participants to consider alternatives and decide upon a topic. Next, students research the topic for information to write scripts which reflect a logical story or sequence of events. After completing the scripts, they question each other, engaging in peer critiquing or coaching. Students first practice telling their stories in a traditional manner, which aids in the discovery of details essential to their stories. Afterward, a story map (Fig. 1) is designed to illustrate the main components of the story and their relationship to the overall narrative. For instructors, story mapping provides a basis for immediate assessment of students' stories and provides feedback on how to improve weaker elements of their stories. In addition, students represent their stories in a storyboard format (Fig. 2), arranging the sequence of scenes, effects, and other digital components. Each task in this pre-production phase is paper-based, requiring focus on the content rather than multimedia elements. Writing scripts and story treatments is a key process for creating digital stories since the final product is media-based.

During the production phase, students prepare multimedia elements and record their own voices. Then, in the post-production phase, the content is arranged and edited into a digital story. During the distribution phase, students share their comments and digital stories with others. The dynamic process of creating digital stories develops a deeper connection with the subject matter being learned as well as relevant extra-curricular experiences.

In order for innovative technology-supported instructional strategies to be considered appropriate and permanent options for instructors, their influence on students' academic performance must be evaluated. Researchers have examined the effectiveness of DST in increasing students' academic achievement. In terms of language learning, researchers (Ellis, 1993; Gomez, Arai, & Lowe, 1995; Schank, 1990; Tsou, 2003) have demonstrated that, at an early stage of language acquisition, academic achievement correlates positively with the oral behaviors of repeating, chanting, and singing. In fact, telling and listening to stories shapes early learning and can even influence the nature of our intelligence (Schank, 1990; Tsou, 2003). In particular, the effectiveness of DST has been demonstrated for developing listening comprehension skills in elementary school English as a second language learners (Tsou, Wang, & Tzeng, 2006; Verdugo & Belmonte, 2007). The authors suggest that future studies should include alternative age groups and explore other linguistic areas such as reading and writing, which could further substantiate the link between a media-rich environment and language learning. Hence, exploring the impact of DST on academic achievement in different linguistic areas (listening, reading, and writing) was the first goal of this research.

Another main application of DST is in enhancing students' critical thinking, which scholars since Dewey (1910) have emphasized as a major goal for education. The American Psychological Association (APA) offers a general definition of critical thinking as “judging in a reflective way what to do or what to believe” (Facione, 1990, 112). In the context of contemporary information overload it is increasingly necessary to cultivate students' critical thinking for evaluating the authenticity of claims from among a mass of online information (Yang, Newby, & Bill, 2008). Five measurable dimensions which reflect this critical thinking ability include recognition of assumptions, induction, deduction, interpretation, and evaluation of arguments (Yeh, 2003).

When students create their own digital stories, they gather evidence to support the plot, empathizing with similar difficulties which they may face in their daily life, and project these problems onto characters in the story. Sims (2004) suggests that the process of listening to and telling stories includes many critical elements, as storytellers must use critical thinking such as deductions and interpretations to persuade their audience. In creating their own digital stories, students ultimately make decisions and overcome the characters' problems by using a critical theorizing process and reflection skills (Benmayor, 2008; Maier & Fisher, 2006; Malita & Martin, 2010), suggesting that DST may an effective instructional strategy for improving students' critical thinking. Although critical thinking has been identified as an important instructional goal, little research on the impact of DST on critical thinking has been conducted. Therefore, the second goal of this study was to explore the impact of DST on critical thinking.

Engaging and motivating students is always a key factor for successful learning. Research has shown that the application of technology improves student learning motivation and performance in technology-rich classrooms (Jonassen, 2000; Roblyer & Edwards, 2000), including those adopting ITII strategies. However, since students are very familiar with technology, is lecture-type ITII sufficient for activating their learning motivation? Recent research has emphasized that instructors also need to design meaningful activities for enhancing students' interest and motivation in order to promote active learning (Chang, 2005; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Svinicki, 2004).

DST usually provides students with authentic scenarios suited to their personal experiences, making the content seem important and valuable. After successfully completing challenging tasks, students who are actively involved in learning will gain confidence and motivation (Koohang et al., 2009; Neo & Neo, 2010). Thus, DST stresses two motivational constructs: task value and self-efficacy for learning. Task value typically refers to students' judgments on the interest, usefulness, and importance of the course content (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & Mckeachie, 1993), while self-efficacy refers to the judgment of one's capability to perform an academic task (Pintrich, 1999). Hence, the third goal of this study was to compare the effectiveness of lecture-type ITII and DST in fostering learning motivation.

Section snippets

Purpose of the study

Although instructors are often encouraged to use ITII strategies based on social constructivism to conduct effective learning, most instructors still struggle to integrate technology into regular class activities. In fact, technology is often applied simply to replacement or amplification uses. This implies that instructors have not been adequately trained in developing transformative technology pedagogy and are inexperienced in matching appropriate teaching materials and technology tools to

Method

A pretest and posttest quasi-experiment design involving an experimental group and a comparison group was used in examining the above research questions. The research design is shown in Fig. 3.

Academic achievement in English

Table 4 shows descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and adjusted means, for English scores between the two research groups. Both research groups showed improvement on the posttest. However, the ANCOVA results show a significant difference in EAT posttest scores between the comparison group (lecture-type ITII group) and the experimental group (DST group), F(1, 107) = 41.43, p = .00, partial η2 = .28 (see Table 5). Taking into account the partial eta squared of .28, we can

Conclusion

Digital storytelling (DST), as a transformative IT integrated instructional strategy, takes advantage of technological advancements, a clear production process and low-cost media materials, and an effective learning environment for fostering collaboration and co-construction of meaning. DST is a valuable tool for invigorating learning and motivating participants to collaboratively construct and personalize digital narratives as authentic products of learning. The results of this

Acknowledgements

The funding for this research was provided by the National Science Council of Taiwan, under grant NSC 95-2520-S-006-002 and 99-2628-S-006-001-MY3.

References (58)

  • J. Cohen

    Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences

    (1988)
  • T. Crane et al.

    Learning for the 21st century: A report and mile guide for 21st century skills

    (2003)
  • J. Dewey

    How we think

    (1910)
  • B. Dodge

    Webquests: a technique for internet-based learning

    Distance Educator

    (1995)
  • EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative

    7 things you should know about digital storytelling

    (2007)
  • R.T. Eisler

    Tomorrow's children: A blueprint for partnership education in the 21st century

    (2006)
  • J. Ellis

    Japanese students abroad: relating language ability in class and in the community

    Thought Currents in English Literature

    (1993)
  • P.A. Facione

    Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction

    (1990)
  • C.T. Fosnot

    Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice

    (1996)
  • J. Gere

    Storytelling tools for the classroom

  • A.M. Gomez et al.

    When does a student participate in class? Ethnicity and classroom participation

  • K.F. Hew et al.

    Integrating technology into k-12 teaching and learning: current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research

    Educational Technology Research and Development

    (2007)
  • J. Hughes

    The role of teacher knowledge and learning experiences in forming technology-integrated pedagogy

    Journal of Technology and Teacher Education

    (2005)
  • D.H. Jonassen

    Transforming learning with technology: beyond modernism and post-modernism or whoever controls the technology creates the reality

    Educational Technology

    (2000)
  • D.H. Jonassen et al.

    Mindtools: affording multiple knowledge representations for learning

  • M. Kearney

    Towards a learning design for student-generated digital storytelling

  • A. Koohang et al.

    E-learning and constructivism: from theory to application

    Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects

    (2009)
  • R.B. Maier et al.

    Strategies for digital storytelling via tabletop video: building decision making skills in middle school students in marginalized communities

    Journal of Educational Technology Systems

    (2006)
  • M.B. Miles et al.

    Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook

    (1994)
  • Cited by (380)

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text