Modeling climate change impact on streamflow as affected by snowmelt in Nicolet River Watershed, Quebec
Introduction
It is widely acknowledged that the earth is warming due to increasing greenhouse gas emissions generated by anthropogenic activities (López-Ballesteros et al., 2020). Over the period of 1901–2012, the mean global temperature has risen by 0.89 °C (IPCC, 2013), and the warming is expected to continue (Zhang et al., 2019). In a recent governmental report released by Environment and Climate Change Canada, the mean annual temperature in Canada is expected to increase by 2.0–6.0 °C by 2100 (ECCC, 2019). With warmer temperatures, and the atmosphere’s resulting greater capacity to hold water vapor, precipitation regimes will be altered (Rouhani and Leconte, 2018), and, accordingly the watersheds’ hydrologic cycle. For snowmelt-dominated regions, changes in precipitation will affect snow accumulation and thereby streamflow, while changes in temperature will most likely influence the timing of snowmelt (Barnett et al., 2005). According to the Emergency Preparedness Canada (EPC) electronic disaster database, over 65% of the nation’s flood disasters were attributed to snowmelt runoff, storm water, and storm rainfall runoff (Brooks et al., 2001). In the mountainous areas of the western United States, over 70% of runoff have been attributed to snowmelt (Li et al., 2017). Under a changing climate, higher latitude areas are more likely to experience increasingly extreme spring floods (Rouhani and Leconte, 2018). An analysis of Canadian hydrologic trends over the last 30 years has shown an increase in winter streamflow, a decrease in summer streamflow, along with earlier peak flows (Whitfield and Cannon, 2000, Zhang et al., 2000, Jacques and Sauchyn, 2009). A global analysis of climate change impacts on river flow regimes in a number of countries, including Canada, predicted a significant increase in the magnitude of peak flows, but with their occurrence shifted at least one month earlier (Arnell and Gosling, 2013).
In Quebec, high flow events and spring floods are primarily the result of snowmelt, which accounts for up to 40% of annual streamflow (Coulibaly et al., 2000, Ferguson, 1999). Between 1900 and 1997, approximately 14% of the national flood disasters occurred in Quebec. The highly populated areas of southern Quebec have experienced a number of major flood events in the last few decades, and the recent one in 2017 has flooded thousands of houses and caused great damage to the riverside communities (Rouhani and Leconte, 2018). Under changing climate conditions, the occurrence of extreme spring floods in Quebec is predicted to increase, largely as the result of an earlier snowmelt (Beauchamp et al., 2015, Rouhani and Leconte, 2018). It is therefore essential to assess the potential impact of climate change on streamflow characteristics, especially peak flows, and thereby better monitor floods and offer watershed management adaptations to mitigate these disasters.
Hydrological models with snowmelt modules have been recently applied to simulate streamflow in snowmelt-dominated areas (Ficklin and Barnhart, 2014, Lachance-Cloutier et al., 2017, Tang et al., 2019). Accurate modeling and simulation of streamflow under snowmelt conditions typical of snow-dominated regionss are critical to capture watershed’s physical and hydrological characteristics, and can provide guidance for local flood forecasting and control. In addition, the calibrated and validated models provide an option to forecast the long-term shifts in streamflow under various climate conditions. The ArcSWAT model is a semi-distributed hydrological model at a watershed-scale with different modules targeting various user demands (Arnold et al., 1998). Laying a solid foundation for further model application, the model provides accurate predictions of snowmelt-influenced streamflow at both daily and monthly time steps worldwide including West Seti River Basin (Bhatta et al., 2020), Himalayan River Basin (Bhatta et al., 2019), Heihe River Basin (Wu et al., 2015), Taleghan mountainous watershed (Noor et al., 2014), Outardes basin (Troin and Caya, 2014), Blue River watershed (Lemonds and McCray, 2007), Garonne watershed (Grusson et al., 2015), and Ontonagon River basin (Wu and Johnston, 2007).
Given its high accuracy and applicability towards long-term prediction of winter hydrological events in snow-dominated regions, several previous studies undertaken in southern Quebec have employed SWAT to investigate the hydrological response to climate change. These studies have suggested significant greater annual runoff, along with earlier snowmelt and discharge peaks (Gombault et al., 2015, Minville et al., 2008, Shrestha et al., 2012). Gombault et al. (2015) found that under future scenarios (2041–2070), spring floods would begin earlier, annual streamflow would increase by 9–19% and winter flow would increase by 2- to 3- fold as compared to the baseline period (1971–2000). While these studies were only concerned with the combined effects of temperature and precipitation on the peak flow of watersheds, the individual effects of temperature and precipitation changes on snowfall and snowmelt were not well addressed, an important omission since snowmelt is the major contributor to peak flows for the snow-dominated watersheds.
Located in the St Lawrence lowlands, the Nicolet River watershed has faced a growing risk of spring flooding in the recent years. In early April 2014, the watershed was added to a spring flood warning register, due to higher than normal water levels from spring thaw along and warming temperatures (CBC News, 2014). Road accesses to towns in this region were cut off because of high water levels in the spring of 2017. While no study of future streamflow in this watershed has been conducted, it is necessary to assess the impact of future climate change on the Nicolet River watershed hydrology, especially with respect to spring streamflow and snowmelt. Although Gombault et al. (2015) assessed the impact of climate change on the hydrology of the nearby Pike River watershed using a calibrated SWATqc model, they only applied four projected future climate datasets and there was a large variation among the four climate models in terms of spatial and seasonal changes. It is therefore necessary to apply multiple climate change models for the assessment of climate change impacts in this region.
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the ArcSWAT model’s capacity to accurately simulate streamflow in a snow-dominated watershed, and subsequently, employing eleven projected climate scenarios, to quantify the potential impact of climate change on the Nicolet River watershed’s hydrology as affected by snowmelt. This research focused on the hydrologic changes induced by climate change between the baseline period (1983–2000) and projected future climates (2050–2067), especially in the winter and spring seasons. Furthermore, both the combined and individual effects of temperature and precipitation change on future annual and seasonal streamflow as well as peak flow, as affected by snowmelt were assessed.
Section snippets
Site description
The Nicolet River, as a southern tributary of the Saint Lawrence River, drains a watershed approximately 3380 km2 into Lake Saint-Pierre. The research area intersected the downtown portions of the towns of Victoriaville and Warwick (Fig. 1). The stream flow data from hydrological station 02OD003 was downloaded from the Environment Canada’s HYDAT database. Weather data, including precipitation and air temperature, were retrieved from four meteorological stations (Station ID: 701HE63; 7027783;
Model calibration and validation
The simulated streamflow closely matched the observed streamflow in both calibration and validation periods (Fig. 4). After model calibration, the model showed satisfactory model performance for simulating both the daily flow (NSE = 0.55, RSR = 0.67, and PBIAS = 9%) and monthly streamflow (NSE = 0.75, RSR = 0.50 and PBIAS = 9%) with an overall water balance error of 5% (Table 4). Validated over the period of 1996–2000 on both daily and monthly time steps, the ArcSWAT model showed adequate model
Conclusions
In this study, the ArcSWAT model was successfully parameterized for the Nicolet River watershed. The model was calibrated using measured streamflow data from 1986 to 1990 and validated against similar data from 1991 to 2000. Statistical analysis suggested a satisfactory performance of the ArcSWAT model in simulating daily and monthly streamflow in both calibration and validation phases (NSE > 0.5, RSR < 0.7 and ). Subsequently, eleven sets of projected future climate data were drawn
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Qianjing Jiang: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing. Zhiming Qi: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing - review & editing. Fei Tang: Visualization, Writing - original draft. Lulin Xue: Resources, Data curation. Melissa Bukovsky: Resources, Data curation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The research was funded by NSERC-Discovery Grant (Effect of management practices on hydrology and nutrient losses from a tile-drained field under freeze-thaw conditions), under Grant Agreement No. RGPIN-2019-05662.
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