ReviewState of remediation and metal toxicity in the Tri-State Mining District, USA
Graphical abstract
Introduction
The Tri-State Mining District of Kansas, Missouri and Oklahoma [(TSMD) Fig. 1] produced ore for more than a hundred years. In the 1950s, lead and zinc production dwindled, and by the 1970s ore was depleted and most mines and smelters closed (Gibson, 1972). Throughout the life of the TSMD, 23 million tons of zinc concentrates and four million tons of lead concentrates were extracted (McCauley et al., 1983). Much of the waste material, mining shafts and tunnels have remained in place for decades.
Non-ore waste rock and mill wastes were disposed in piles near production centers, locally referred to as “chat” piles (Gibson, 1972). Chat piles covered large areas near mining operations (USEPA, 2012a), in many instances laying within city limits (e.g.,
Picher in Oklahoma, and Joplin in Missouri). Emissions from smelters added to the metal content of top soils through fugitive dust and fallout, whereas mine shafts, subsidence and sinkholes disturbed the landscape. Studies conducted in the 1980s found metal levels high enough to designate three large portions of the TSMD “Superfund” sites. Superfund is a U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) established program that addresses abandoned hazardous waste sites.
The toxic effects of the exposure of these wastes soon became evident (USEPA, 1994, MDH, 2002). Signs of exposure included increase of illnesses, high incidence of lung cancer, and elevated blood lead levels (BLL) in children (Neuberger et al., 1990, USEPA, 1994, USEPA, 2012a). A health study led by the USEPA in 1994 identified soil remediation as a priority and further remedial actions were undertaken (USEPA, 2012a).
In this paper, we provide an overview of the present state of contamination for the entire TSMD, highlight contaminant hot-spots, address concerns about stream habitat using recommended sediment quality guidelines, and discuss remediation technologies that are fitting for the TSMD's geology and hydrology.
Section snippets
Geology, type of ore emplacement and chemical composition
Lead-zinc ore mineralization in the TSMD is associated with Mississippi Valley-Type Deposits that occur near the westernmost extent of the Ozark Plateau and other parts of Missouri. Besides TSMD, lead-zinc deposits are concentrated in southeast Missouri in the ore province districts of Viburnum Trend, Old Lead Belt, and New Lead Belt (Leach, 1994, Stoffell et al., 2008) as well as smaller deposits scattered in central Missouri. The TSMD extends from near Commerce in northeast Oklahoma north
TSMD contamination and superfund sites
The mine waste piles (chat) are comprised mainly of angular chert fragments with small amounts of lead and zinc sulfide minerals. Investigations of the chemical composition and distribution of the sulfide minerals in the chat (e.g., Dames and Moore, 1993, Datin and Cates, 2002; and OKDEQ, 2003) show that Cd, Pb and Zn are present over a wide range of concentrations with Zn being the most abundant element, and that these metals concentrate in the fine-grained portion. Datin and Cates (2002)
Extent of the contamination and spatial distribution based on sediment analyses
The impact of mining wastes can be determined by measuring metal content in water, soils, sediments, dust, suspended matter and/or pore water (Horowitz, 1991, Salomons and Förstner, 1984). Among these, sediment has proved to be a more effective medium than water to accurately measure the extent of contamination, especially for heavy metals since these have a tendency to accumulate in the solid phase and remain in solid phases for a longer time, an attribute known as memory effect (Salomons and
Toxicity and bioaccumulation of contaminant metals Cd, Pb and Zn
Increased levels of Pb, Cd, and Zn in soils and water columns in mining districts can accumulate and persist within the environment (Davies, 1983, Jennett et al., 1981). The mobility of these metals through the biota contributes to a host of potential health and life effects ranging from behavioral abnormalities (Needleman et al., 1996), gastrointestinal discomfort (Plum et al., 2010), reduced reproduction success and in severe cases death (Satarug et al., 2003). Detrimental effects of
Recommendations and alternative remediation actions
As a result of the sheer size of most abandoned mining sites, stakeholders have been pushed to adapt and adopt new or innovative approaches to addressing contamination. For this, an understanding of the paths followed by contaminants as well as how to sustainably manage these sites is required (Lottermoser, 2011). Numerous studies have examined this problem and as a result, a broad scope of possible remediation actions have been identified, from recovery of metals to chemical immobilization to
Conclusions
The state of contamination in the TSMD has been addressed in numerous studies, many of which have focused on metal content of soils and sediments, and toxicity of sediments. Studies concur that the concentrations of Cd, Pb and Zn in contaminated sites can be up to three orders of magnitude higher than background values. All three metals can be present in levels that are toxic to aquatic organisms (above Probable Effect Concentration) or other wildlife. According to toxicity studies and
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