Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk of organochlorine pesticide residues in processed cereal-based complementary foods for infants and young children in Ghana
Introduction
Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), due to their ability to persist in the environment for long periods even after application. Many OCPs have been identified as hormone disrupters, exerting their toxic effects on the hormonal and reproductive systems thus resulting in adverse health effects to human (Golden et al., 1998, Hosie et al., 2000, Tiemann, 2008).
Although enormous restrictions have been placed on the use of OCPs due to the entry into force of the Stockholm Convention on POPs (UNEP, 2004), there is still documented evidence of OCPs in food samples (Waliszewski et al., 2003, Da Silva et al., 2010, Dubois et al., 2010, Fernandes et al., 2011a; Akoto et al., 2013). OCPs have been detected in cereals and grains, such as wheat, maize and cowpea which are used as raw materials for processing cereal-based complementary foods (Toteja et al., 2003, Bakore et al., 2004, Mawussi et al., 2009, Akoto et al., 2013).
Dietary intake represents a major route of pesticides exposure to humans especially children (Fenske et al., 2002a; Clayton et al., 2003). Due to their higher basal metabolic rate and energy requirements, children use more oxygen and therefore have a higher food consumption rate per kilogram body weight than adults (IPCS, 2004, FSA, 2012). Hence children risk higher than adults when exposed to contaminated food (Faustman et al., 2000, Kroes et al., 2002, IPCS, 2004). Several adverse health outcomes have been linked with children’s exposure to pesticides. Parkinson-like declines in dopaminergic neurons in adulthood (Cory-Slechta et al., 2005, Eskenazi et al., 2006), delayed puberty (Laws et al., 2000, Ashby et al., 2002, Eskenazi et al., 2006), childhood cancer, neurological and endocrine disruption effects have been associated with the consumption of pesticide-contaminated foods (Garry, 2003; Bhatia et al., 2005).
Despite the higher risk posed by environmental toxicants to children, studies on dietary exposure in children are limited in Africa (Flower et al., 2004, Renwick et al., 2005, Cohen et al., 2000), with most studies focusing on chemical exposure among adults (Huybrechts et al., 2011). The paucity of exposure data for infants (6–11 months) and young children (12–24 months) could present risk management challenges. Monitoring of foods for infants and young children is crucial in assessing the dietary exposure to potentially harmful chemicals during the early years of life (Piccinelli et al., 2010).
In Ghana studies on risk assessment of pesticide residues in food are limited, and have focused mainly on fruits and vegetables (Bempah et al., 2011) and maize and cowpea (Akoto et al., 2013) for the general population. There is the need for dietary exposure studies on pesticide residues in processed cereal-based complementary foods for infants and young children considering their unique vulnerabilities. The objective of this study is to assess the risk posed to infants and young children by OCP residues following the consumption of processed cereal-based complementary foods sold in Ghana.
Section snippets
Sampling
Ten brands of processed cereal-based complementary foods comprising 5 locally produced and 5 imported produced were sampled from markets in Accra, (Ghana). For each brand of product, 5 samples of different batch were analyzed separately in triplicates. The mean concentration for each brand was then calculated. The various brands were designated as baby food A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J. Analyzed food products were to be consumed by children from six (6) months of age onward.
Extraction and clean-up of pesticide residues
All reagents and
Results and discussion
The processed cereal-based complementary baby food samples were analyzed for the residues of 14 different types of OCPs comprising (β-HCH, γ-HCH, δ-HCH, heptachlor, aldrin, γ-chlordane, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDT, dieldrin, endrin, α-endosulfan, β-endosulfan, endosulfan sulphate and methoxychlor). The results show that 90% of samples analyzed were contaminated. Residues of 8 out of the 14 OCPs considered in this study were detected in 9 brands of baby food samples (Table 1). The mean concentration
Conclusion
This study has shown the level of contamination of ten different brands of processed cereal-based complementary food obtained from the Ghanaian marker with OCP residues. γ-HCH which recorded the highest concentration was the most frequently encountered pesticide residue. Concentrations of γ-HCH β-HCH, β-endosulfan, γ-chlordane, dieldrin, and p,p′-DDE, were above their MRL where detected. Health risk assessment for the detected pesticide residues indicated that the EDI of heptachlor; and
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the Ghana Standards Authority and the entire staff members of the Pesticide Residue Laboratory, Mr. Samuel Kofi Frempong, Ms. Ernestina Adeenze, Ms. Pearl Mensah, George Mr. Kuntu Blankson and Mr. Duke Ashie for running the GC analysis.
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