Elsevier

Body Image

Volume 25, June 2018, Pages 1-8
Body Image

Do women with greater trait body dissatisfaction experience body dissatisfaction states differently? An experience sampling study

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.01.004Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Trait body dissatisfied individuals have higher average state body dissatisfaction ratings.

  • Trait body dissatisfied individuals do not appear to be more variable in state body image.

  • However, the relation between state and trait body dissatisfaction was lower than expected.

  • The magnitude of this effect depended on level of instability in state body image.

  • Both trait and state mean body dissatisfaction uniquely predicted eating pathology.

Abstract

The present study evaluated the relation of key features of state body dissatisfaction experiences – inertia, instability from moment-to-moment, and average level across time-points – to trait body dissatisfaction and/or eating disorder risk. Participants included 161 women who completed measures of trait body dissatisfaction and disordered eating pathology, and then completed reported state body dissatisfaction and contextual influences (binge eating, dietary restraint, exercise, and appearance comparison behaviors) 6 times daily for 7 days. Results indicated that individuals with elevated trait body dissatisfaction were reliably different from those with healthier body image in terms of average state body dissatisfaction ratings, but not for inertia or instability. State mean and trait body dissatisfaction uniquely predicted eating pathology, although their predictive accuracy for clinical caseness was comparable. Cost vs. benefit of using state body image data for understanding trait body image and eating pathology is discussed.

Introduction

Dissatisfaction with one’s physical appearance (hereafter referred to as body dissatisfaction) is a common experience, particularly in Western cultures and more so for women than men (Frederick, Forbes, Grigorian, & Jarcho, 2007; Swami et al., 2010). Traditionally, body dissatisfaction has been measured as a stable trait-like construct (e.g., with questions such as, ‘In general, how dissatisfied are you with your appearance?’; Thompson, 2004). Recent research efforts have focused on the experience of body dissatisfaction in daily life (e.g., Melnyk, Cash, & Janda, 2004; Rudiger, Cash, Roehrig, & Thompson, 2007). In large part, this recent interest is driven by the awareness that body dissatisfaction may vary within individuals over time, and this time-varying information may be theoretically and clinically informative.

Using the experience sampling method (ESM; alternatively referred to as ecological momentary assessment), researchers have shown that body dissatisfaction is highly variable within and across days (Colautti et al., 2011, Heron and Smyth, 2013a, Lattimore and Hutchinson, 2010; Mills, Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, & Holmes, 2014; Rudiger, Cash, Roehrig, & Thompson, 2007). Importantly, these shifts in body dissatisfaction states have been linked to a range of contextual factors, such as recent exercise (Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, Skouteris, & McCabe, 2013; LePage & Crowther, 2010) and appearance-related comparisons, especially with more attractive comparators (Leahey, Crowther, & Mickelson, 2007; Ridolfi, Myers, Crowther, & Ciesla, 2011). Elevated state body dissatisfaction may also predict onset of binge episodes (Holmes, Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, Skouteris, & Broadbent, 2014), engagement in dietary restraint efforts (Lattimore & Hutchinson, 2010), and reluctance to engage in social interactions (Mills et al., 2014).

Key features of state-based body dissatisfaction data may also be useful for distinguishing individuals with typical levels of body dissatisfaction from those with clinically-relevant levels of trait body dissatisfaction or related conditions, such as eating disorders. Drawing upon Kuppens and colleagues’ work (e.g., Houbens, van den Noortgate, & Kuppens, 2015; Kuppens, Oravecz, & Tuerlinckx, 2010) on emotional states, we argue that at least three features of state-based data may be relevant for body dissatisfaction: (a) average level of state body dissatisfaction, (b) temporal instability in state body dissatisfaction ratings, and (c) level of correlation among body dissatisfaction states over time (often referred to as inertia).

Insofar as trait-like body dissatisfaction reflects continued, regular experience of body dissatisfaction states, we would anticipate that those with higher trait body dissatisfaction (and related constructs, such as eating pathology) would, on average, tend to have higher state body dissatisfaction ratings in daily life. Consistent with this view, Rudiger et al. (2007) and Melnyk, Cash, and Janda (2004) both found moderate to strong correlations between state mean body satisfaction scores and trait-level body image and eating pathology variables. Importantly, Melnyk et al. demonstrated that mean state body satisfaction scores uniquely contributed to prediction of eating pathology, even after controlling for trait body dissatisfaction.

Individuals may also differ in the extent to which their state body dissatisfaction fluctuates in daily life. While some individuals may be stable in their body dissatisfaction levels over time, others may fluctuate, such that they experience periods of relative satisfaction or intensified body dissatisfaction. These changes may be rapid, or sustained over a number of hours. Moreover, for individuals with regular fluctuations in state body dissatisfaction, the correspondence between her/his average state body dissatisfaction rating and trait-like body dissatisfaction may be weakened as it is more difficult for the individual to appraise their body dissatisfaction in general.

A difference in the magnitude of shift across participants may arise, for instance, if one individual is highly reactive or sensitive to predictors of state body dissatisfaction, whereas the other person is not. Conceivably, more regular shifts in state body dissatisfaction may also occur if a person is more attentive to cues in her/his environment that would prompt these shifts. Indeed, there is empirical support for these notions. Individuals with heightened body image disturbances (including individuals with an eating disorder) tend to exhibit greater sensitivity to appearance threat cues (Espeset, Gulliksen, Nordbo, Skarderud, & Holte, 2012) and show elevated rejection sensitivity (Calogero, Park, Rahemtulla, & Williams, 2010). Moreover, in ESM studies, there is some evidence to suggest that the magnitude and direction of state-based relationships involving body dissatisfaction may depend on one’s level of trait body dissatisfaction (e.g., Leahey, Crowther, & Ciesla, 2011; LePage and Crowther, 2010, Mills et al., 2014). Melnyk et al. (2004) and Rudiger et al. (2007) reported that instability in state body satisfaction was associated with trait-level body image disturbances, with Melnyk et al. also finding an association with eating pathology. However, the moderating effect of instability on the association between trait and state-mean body dissatisfaction remains untested.

Finally, inertia refers to the strength of correlation among state-based ratings from one time-point to the next, and is typically modelled as an auto-correlation (e.g., state body dissatisfaction at time t − 1 predicting state body dissatisfaction at time t). An individual with high inertia experiencing state body dissatisfaction may remain in a state of body dissatisfaction for longer (possibly intensifying over time) than for an individual with lower inertia, who – due to the low autocorrelation – may instead experience a subsequent reversal in state body dissatisfaction level. Such a pattern of high inertia is consistent with the notion of ‘getting stuck’ in a negative mood state (Koval, Kuppens, Allen, & Sheeber, 2012; Kuppens, Allen, & Sheeber, 2010).

We are unaware of any attempts to evaluate whether individuals with trait body dissatisfaction exhibit higher levels of inertia for state body dissatisfaction in daily life. However, the concept of inertia appears compatible with cognitive accounts of body image disturbances, which emphasize that individuals with heightened body dissatisfaction may differ from those with healthier body image in the way they engage in appearance-related stimuli in their environment. Individuals with heightened trait body dissatisfaction appear to be more attentive to negative appearance-related information (Mills et al., 2014), struggle to disengage from these negative stimuli once encountered (Ridolfi et al., 2011), and seem to show a bias towards interpreting ambiguous stimuli as a threat to their appearance (Rodgers & DuBois, 2016; Smeets, Roefs, van Furth, & Jansen, 2008). This hyper-vigilance towards, and difficulty disengaging from, negative appearance-related information is thought to perpetuate body dissatisfaction and related symptoms (e.g., disordered eating). Within the context of experience sampling designs, this may manifest as: (a) longer maintenance of elevated state body dissatisfaction level, and/or (b) stronger associations between consecutive state body dissatisfaction ratings over time for individuals with elevated trait body dissatisfaction. These characteristics may be captured using the concept of inertia.

While these findings offer some insights into the nature of the relationship between state- and trait-level body dissatisfaction, this evidence base remains small and gaps clearly remain. To our knowledge, the relationship between trait body dissatisfaction and inertia has yet to be tested empirically despite theoretical reasons to suspect a link. Similarly, although state mean and trait body image have been shown to strongly correlate (Melnyk et al., 2004, Rudiger et al., 2007), it is unclear whether such associations are contingent upon level of instability an individual experiences. Finally, with the exception of Melnyk et al., there has been insufficient consideration of whether state-based properties of body dissatisfaction may have predictive utility beyond that afforded by trait body dissatisfaction. If characteristics such as inertia and instability are different manifestations of negative body image, then it may be anticipated that they uniquely contribute to body image-related outcomes, such as eating pathology.

The primary aim of the present study is to extend prior investigations of the relationship between state and trait body dissatisfaction. In particular, the present study explored whether: (a) trait body dissatisfaction measured at baseline was associated with mean level, instability, and inertia in state body dissatisfaction measured repeatedly across a one-week testing period; and (b) the strength of correspondence between trait body dissatisfaction and average of state body dissatisfaction ratings is moderated by level of instability during the ESM phase. Given that it is unlikely that trait body dissatisfaction will be perfectly related to these characteristics of state body dissatisfaction, a secondary aim was to evaluate the unique contributions of these state-based body dissatisfaction characteristics to predict eating pathology, controlling for trait body dissatisfaction.

We predicted that average state body dissatisfaction, instability, and inertia will be positively correlated with trait body dissatisfaction (Hypothesis 1a–c) and eating pathology (Hypothesis 2a–c). However, it was further predicted that the correlation between trait and state average body dissatisfaction would be lower for individuals with more unstable state body dissatisfaction ratings during the ESM testing phase (Hypothesis 3). Finally, it was hypothesized that the three state body dissatisfaction characteristics and trait body dissatisfaction would each be significant unique predictors of eating pathology when modelled together (Hypothesis 4).

Section snippets

Participants

One hundred and sixty-one women aged 18–40 (Mage = 22.13, SD = 6.73) were recruited via advertising on websites of eating disorder-related organizations, social media, and through the Australian universities where the authors work. Although the sample was recruited for a broader study exploring the influence of body image on social interactions, we limit reporting to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating measures relevant for present hypotheses.

Self-reported body mass indices (BMI) ranged

Compliance rates

The average number of responses completed per participant (out of a possible 42) was 21.82 (SD = 9.21). Bivariate correlations between compliance rates for ESM surveys and baseline measures were small yet significant for age (r = −0.20, p = .013) and eating pathology (r = −0.22, p = .005), and non-significant for BMI (r = −0.05, p = .54), trait body dissatisfaction (r = −0.07, p = .405), state mean body dissatisfaction (r = −0.04, p = .581), inertia (r = 0.02, p = .811), and temporal

Discussion

Despite growing research interest in state-based conceptions of body dissatisfaction (e.g., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz et al., 2013; Heron and Smyth, 2013a, Heron and Smyth, 2013b, Rogers et al., 2017), much of this research has focused on identifying antecedents to, and consequences of, spikes in state body dissatisfaction. This is in spite of early studies in this area focusing on how state and trait body image constructs relate (e.g., Melnyk et al., 2004, Rudiger et al., 2007). Although these

Acknowledgements

The authors of this manuscript have no conflicts of interest to declare, financial or otherwise, related to this submitted work. Further, all contributors to this manuscript are named as authors.

References (52)

  • D. Mellor et al.

    Sociocultural influences on body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors among Malaysian adolescents

    Body Image

    (2009)
  • S. Melnyk et al.

    Body image ups and downs: Prediction of intra-individual level and variability of women’s daily body image experiences

    Body Image

    (2004)
  • L.A. Ricciardelli et al.

    Psychometric evaluation of the Body Change Inventory: An assessment instrument for adolescent boys and girls

    Eating Behaviors

    (2002)
  • R.F. Rodgers et al.

    Cognitive biases to appearance-related stimuli in body dissatisfaction: A systematic review

    Clinical Psychology Review

    (2016)
  • A. Rogers et al.

    A person-by-situation account of why some people more frequently engage in upward appearance comparison behaviors in everyday life

    Behavior Therapy

    (2017)
  • J.A. Rudiger et al.

    Day-to-day body-image states: Prospective predictors of intra-individual level and variability

    Body Image

    (2007)
  • E. Smeets et al.

    Attentional bias for body and food in eating disorders: Increased distraction, speeded detection, or both?

    Behaviour Research and Therapy

    (2008)
  • J.K. Thompson

    The (mis)measurement of body image: Ten strategies to improve assessment for applied and research purposes

    Body Image

    (2004)
  • S.G. Engel et al.

    The role of affect in the maintenance of anorexia nervosa: Evidence from a naturalistic assessment of momentary behaviors and emotion

    Journal of Abnormal Psychology

    (2013)
  • E.M.S. Espeset et al.

    Fluctuations of body images in anorexia nervosa: Patients’ perception of contextual triggers

    Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy

    (2012)
  • D.A. Frederick et al.

    The UCLA Body Project I: Gender and ethnic differences in self-objectification and body satisfaction among 2, 206 undergraduates

    Sex Roles

    (2007)
  • B.L. Fredrickson

    Extracting meaning from past affective experiences: The importance of peaks, ends, and specific emotions

    Cognition and Emotion

    (2000)
  • M. Fuller-Tyszkiewicz et al.

    An evaluation of equivalence in body dissatisfaction measurement across cultures

    Journal of Personality Assessment

    (2012)
  • M. Fuller-Tyszkiewicz et al.

    A re-examination of the benefits of exercise for body satisfaction: Consideration of individual difference factors

    Journal of Sports Sciences

    (2013)
  • D.M. Garner et al.

    The eating attitudes test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates

    Psychological Medicine

    (1982)
  • J.-P. Glaser et al.

    A momentary assessment study of the reputed emotional phenotype associated with borderline personality disorder

    Psychological Medicine

    (2008)
  • Cited by (33)

    • Tonight, I'm disordered eating: The effects of food delivery app use, loneliness, and mood on daily body dissatisfaction and disordered eating urges

      2023, Appetite
      Citation Excerpt :

      The powerlmm package (Magnusson, 2021) in R was used to simulate estimates of power for a multilevel model and suggested that the final sample of 483 participants was sufficient to detect small effects (>5% variance explained) with >0.80 power (alpha = .05) under the following plausible assumptions: (1) intraclass correlations ranging from 0.4 to 0.7, (2) average cluster size of 25–34 reflecting EMA compliance rates of ∼60%–∼80%, and (3) small variance in random slope for modelled Level 1 effects. Such effects are consistent with findings from prior body image-focused EMA studies (e.g., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2022; Yee et al., 2020). Across the sample, almost half (49.3%) reported current FDA usage, whilst the remainder reported non-usage (51.7%; see Table 1).

    • State versus trait weight, shape, and eating concerns: Disentangling influence on eating behaviors among sexual minority women

      2021, Body Image
      Citation Excerpt :

      Emerging EMA research shows that negative body image states may vary considerably within and across days (Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, Richardson, Lewis, Smyth, & Krug, 2018; Srivastava, Michael, Manasse, & Juarascio, 2020), and that body image states may have unique utility in predicting eating behaviors. For example, EMA studies have shown that trait and state body dissatisfaction independently predict eating pathology among women in the general population (Fuller-Tyszkiewicz et al., 2018), and state body dissatisfaction predicts the onset of binge eating in daily life above and beyond trait concerns (Holmes, Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, Skouteris, & Broadbent, 2014). Although a handful of prior studies have used EMA to study links between minority stress and dysregulated eating among sexual minority women in daily life (Mason, Lewis, & Heron, 2017a; Panza, Fehling, Pantalone, Dodson, & Selby, 2020), we are not aware of any studies investigating links between negative body image states and dysregulated eating among sexual minority women.

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text