Research review paperA review of lignocellulose bioconversion using enzymatic hydrolysis and synergistic cooperation between enzymes—Factors affecting enzymes, conversion and synergy
Introduction
In 2001, about 97% of the world's liquid transportation fuels were derived from petroleum (Mielenz, 2001). To reduce the reliance on fossil fuels amidst price hikes and unrest in the Middle East, governments have initiated extensive research into the large scale production of alternative liquid transportation fuels from renewable resources. The US Department of Energy has set a target for biofuel production in the US to reach 60 billion gallons per year by 2030 while the EU target aims to supply 25% of transportation fuel requirements through biofuel production by 2030 (Himmel et al., 2007). Production of biofuel from sugarcane (in Brazil) and corn (in the US) has limited capacity to supply such volumes. In many countries there is also ongoing debate about the use of food crops for biofuel production. As a result, lignocellulose biomass has been identified as the most suitable feedstock for biofuel production since it consists of approximately 75% polysaccharide sugars (Bayer et al., 2007, Lynd et al., 1991). Sources of lignocellulose include agricultural waste such as corn stover, bagasse, wood, grass, municipal waste and dedicated energy crops such as miscanthus and switchgrass (Gomez et al., 2008).
Enzymatic hydrolysis of plant carbohydrates has emerged as the most prominent technology for the conversion of biomass into monomer sugars for subsequent fermentation into bioethanol. The biological degradation of the carbohydrates within the biomass is achieved using multiple enzymes in defined ratios to convert the carbohydrates to their monomer sugars. This is followed by the fermentation of these sugars into bioethanol. The enzymes cooperate in a synergistic fashion to degrade the substrate, meaning that the activity of enzymes working together is higher than the addition of their individual activities.
The initial focus has been on the conversion of cellulose into glucose monomers, but research is now focusing on the utilisation of both hexoses and pentoses in fermentation as it increases the theoretical yield and can substantially improve the economics of the process (Merino and Cherry, 2007). This has had an impact on aspects of the process such as the type of pretreatment used and the enzymes required for hydrolysis.
Different types of processes may be used for bioconversion and fermentation of lignocellulose. Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) refers to the physical separation of these two processes, whereas simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) refers to these processes taking place within the same bioreactor. Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) refers to the use of a single organism to produce the enzymes required and to perform both the hydrolysis and fermentation (Lynd et al., 2005, Xu et al., 2009). CBP is potentially considered the most cost-effective process as it has lower capital costs and may achieve enhanced synergy due to microbe/enzyme interactions (Elkins et al., 2010, Lynd et al., 2002). Various processes, namely pretreatment, hydrolysis and fermentation may have an impact on the enzymes involved in hydrolysis. For example, in SHF, higher temperatures (50 °C) can be used for hydrolysis, while in SSF, temperatures have to be lower (30–32 °C) to accommodate the optimal temperature for the fermenting organism (Andric et al., 2010).
This review focuses on the evaluation of synergy studies as reported in literature and various factors that have an impact on synergy, yield and hydrolysis.
Section snippets
Structure of lignocellulose
Lignocellulose consists of lignin, carbohydrates such as cellulose and hemicellulose, pectin, proteins, ash, salt and minerals. Lignin consists of phenylpropane units such as p-coumaryl, coniferyl, guaiacyl, syringyl and sinapyl alcohol and is very resistant to degradation (Hendriks and Zeeman, 2009). Lignin composition is variable between hardwoods and softwoods, although the specific three-dimensional structure of lignin is unknown (Eriksson and Bermek, 2009). Older and more woody plants
Obstacles for hydrolysis of lignocellulose and the role of pretreatments
Pretreatment of lignocellulose biomass is crucial for achieving effective hydrolysis of substrates as enzymatic hydrolysis of native lignocellulose produces less than 20% glucose from the cellulose fraction (Zhang and Lynd, 2004). Although pretreatment is costly, the cost of not pretreating is even larger (Eggeman and Elander, 2005). Depending on the specific pretreatment, different effects may be observed on the substrate that can all contribute to improved hydrolysis. Some of these effects
Enzymes required to degrade lignocellulose
A large variety of enzymes with different specificities are required to degrade all components of lignocellulose. Many reviews are available on this subject (Banerjee et al., 2010b, Gilbert, 2010, Gilbert et al., 2008, Lynd et al., 2002, Saha, 2003, Zhang and Lynd, 2004). Table 2 gives a brief overview of the types of enzymes that are required to degrade complex lignocellulose substrates. However, there are indications that many other proteins may contribute to lignocellulose degradation in
Synergy studies
The degree of synergy or synergism is defined as “the ratio of the rate or yield of product released by enzymes when used together to the sum of the rate or yield of these products when the enzymes are used separately in the same amounts as they were employed in the mixture” (Kumar and Wyman, 2009a). Synergy depends on the ratio of the enzymes involved (Nidetzky et al., 1994), as well as the specific characteristics of the enzymes and the characteristics of the substrate.
Synergy studies have
Measurement of synergism—degree of synergy
The degree of synergy between enzymes is the ratio between the activity of the mixture and the sum of the individual activities on the same substrate (Andersen et al., 2008). It is occasionally also reported as a percentage enhancement of activity (Gottschalk et al., 2010). The degree of synergy is a quantification of the ability of two or more enzymes to cooperate in their action on a substrate. According to Andersen et al. (2008), the degree of synergy can be based on product formation,
Model for enzyme synergy approach to bioconversion
The first step in bioconversion of a lignocellulose substrate is an accurate analysis of the composition of the pretreated substrate, particularly the specific sugars in the hemicellulose fraction which would identify the presence of arabinoxylan, mannan or arabinan which could impact on the selection of enzymes for its degradation. Two models are outlined in Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 1 based on the use of individual combinations of enzymes whereas Fig. 2 is based on the use of commercial enzymes
Future perspectives
Bioconversion using enzyme synergy has generally opted for two approaches, individual enzyme combinations or combinations of commercial mixtures. Either option can be useful. Use of individual enzymes can lead to a greater understanding of synergy and cooperation between enzymes to degrade a complex substrate, whereas the use of commercial enzymes may be a quicker route to commercialisation.
With respect to the use of individual enzymes, a shortcoming is the lack of commerical availability of
Acknowledgements
JS van Dyk acknowledges the Claude Leon Foundation for funding.
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Claude Leon Postdoctoral Fellow.