Elsevier

Atmospheric Research

Volume 93, Issue 4, August 2009, Pages 715-722
Atmospheric Research

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in urban air of Konya, Turkey

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.02.012Get rights and content

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined in urban air samples of Konya, Turkey between August 2006 and May 2007. The concentrations of pollutants in both the gas and particulate phase were separately analysed. The average total (gas + particulate) concentrations of PAHs, PCBs and OCPs were determined as 206 ng m 3, 0.106 ng m 3, 4.78 ng m 3 respectively. All of the investigated target compounds were dominantly found in the gas phase except OCPs. Higher air concentrations of PAHs were found at winter season while the highest concentrations of PCBs were determined in September. The highest OCPs were detected in October and in March. In urban air of Konya, PCB 28 and PCB 52 congeners represent 46% and 35% of total PCBs while Phenanthrene, Fluoranthene, Pyrene accounted for 29%, 13%, 10% of total PAHs. HCH compounds (α + β + γ + δ-HCH), total DDTs (p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, p,p′-DDT), Endosulfan compounds (Endosulfan I, Endosulfan II, Endosulfan sulfate) were dominantly determined as 30%, 21%, 20% of total OCPs respectively. Considering the relation between these compounds with temperature, there was no significant correlation observed. Despite banned/restricted use in Turkey, some OCPs were determined in urban air. These results demonstrated that they are either illegally being used in the course of agricultural activity and gardens in Konya or they are residues of past use in environment. According to these results, it can be suggested that Konya is an actively contributing region to persistent organic pollutants in Turkey.

Introduction

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as PCBs, pesticides, PAHs are toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic organic compounds. POPs can be transported over long distances from their sources by means of atmospheric activity, they bio-accumulate in the food chain and can reach high concentrations in living organisms. Even, these pollutants can be determined in remote locations including polar regions where they have never been used or produced. Owing to their toxicity, they can pose a threat to humans and the environment. The control and reduction of emissions of POPs must be provided for protection of human health and the environment from their adverse effects. These compounds are mainly anthropogenic in origin and released in great quantities to environment (Breivik et al., 1999).

Anthropogenic emission sources for PAHs in the atmosphere include emissions from motor vehicles, waste incineration plants, domestic heating, oil refining, other industrial processes and forest fires. Due to carcinogenic, toxic and mutagenic properties of some of these compounds, the fate of PAHs in urban and industrialized areas is of great environmental concern (Cincinelli et al., 2007). PCBs may enter the atmosphere from transformers and capacitors, incinerators, paints, plastics, landfills, sludge drying beds. Even though PCBs production and use were banned since 1979, they become ubiquitous pollutants in all environmental compartments in many locations around the world (Brunciak et al., 2001). The extensive use of pesticides to improve agricultural productivity played an important role in the last century. Although most of OCPs have been banned in many countries because of mutagenic and carcinogenic effects, they and their metabolites are still present in the environment, owing to their persistence and lipophilic properties (Aboul-Kassim and Simoneit, 2001). The pesticides can enter the atmosphere due to the current use, or emission/reemission from the various environmental compartments in which they are already present as residues resulting from historical use (Scholtz and Bidleman, 2006).

PAHs, PCBs and OCPs levels have been measured widespread in different environmental compartments in the world. However, their measurements in air are limited in Turkey. In order to assess the potential of priority organic pollutants, gas–particle concentration, temporal changes, and variation relationship with temperature were determined in urban air of Konya, Turkey. To control and reduce PAHs, PCBs, OCPs emissions, anthropogenic and biogenic sources were identified using specific compounds concentration diagnostic ratios. The potential human health risks of PAHs investigated in this study were evaluated by toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for each PAH compounds.

Section snippets

Reagents and standards

All chemicals used were of analytical grade. The standards of PCBs (PCB 28, 52, 101, 138, 153 and 180), PAHs (Naphthalene, Acenaphthalene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene, Anthracene, Fluoranthene, Pyrene, Benzo[a]anthracene, Chrysene, Benzo[b]flouranthene, Benzo[k]fluoranthene, Benzo[a]pyrene, Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, Benzo[g,h,i]perylene), OCPs (α,β,γ,δ-HCH, Heptachlor, Aldrin, Heptachlor epoxide, Dieldrin, p,p′-DDE, Endrin, Endrin aldehyde, Endrin ketone,

Quality control and quality assurance

The analytical quality of the data was determined using limit of detection (LOD), recovery, reproducibility, linearity and by checking sampling artifacts. The MS was tuned daily with perfluorotributylamine. Instrument detection limits (IDLs) for all compounds were determined according to published guidelines at a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of three (Wolska, 2002). Blank samples (including six pre-cleaned PUF plugs and filters) were prepared, treated and analysed in the same manner as the real

Conclusion

In content of the Stockholm agreement, Turkey carry out national implementation plan to protect human health and the environment by eliminating or restricting the production, use and release of 12 POP chemicals (aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene, hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins and furans). Therefore, their concentrations must be identified in the environment first and then, their possible sources must be determined. Afterwards, in

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