Research ReportDoes the consumption of caloric and non-caloric beverages with a meal affect energy intake?
Introduction
Recent research has suggested that consumption of energy-containing beverages is associated with positive energy balance and obesity. Observational studies conducted in children and adolescents showed that the consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks was associated with increased energy intake and risk of obesity (Berkey et al., 2004, Harnack et al., 1999, James et al., 2004, Ludwig et al., 2001). Experimental studies have found that when adults are provided with sweetened drinks to consume as desired, those given caloric drinks have a significantly greater energy intake and body weight after several weeks than those provided with non-caloric drinks (Raben et al., 2002, Tordoff and Alleva, 1990). Sweetened beverages such as sodas have come under particular scrutiny because they are consumed more frequently than milk and juice, and provide few nutrients other than calories (Enns, Goldman, & Cook, 1997). Fruit juice and low-fat milk, although they provide other nutrients, have the same energy density (energy per unit weight) as soda. It is not clear whether energy intake at a meal differs depending on whether the accompanying beverage is soda, juice, milk, or a non-caloric beverage. The objective of this study was to determine how beverages differing in macronutrient content and sensory qualities affect energy intake when consumed with a meal.
We (Rolls & Barnett, 2000) and others (St-Onge et al., 2004, Stubbs and Whybrow, 2003) have suggested that various beverages differ in their effects on satiety and food intake. Specifically, it has been proposed that the addition of protein, fat, or fiber to a beverage enhances satiety, perhaps by slowing stomach emptying. This theory was supported by the results of a recent study, which showed that satiety was greater after consumption of a liquid meal replacement containing a mix of sugar, fat, and protein than after an isocaloric beverage containing only sugar (St-Onge et al., 2004). Milk might also be expected to promote satiety since it contains protein and fat in addition to carbohydrate. Indeed, in a number of preloading experiments subjects showed good compensation for the energy content of milk-based drinks by reducing intake at the subsequent meal (Rolls and Roe, 2002, Rolls et al., 1998). Another recent preloading study, however, did not find a difference between 1% fat milk and other caloric beverages in terms of increased fullness or reduced energy intake at the subsequent lunch (Almiron-Roig & Drewnowski, 2003).
It is often suggested that fruit juice is a healthier alternative to soda. The key question is how fruit juice, especially that containing pulp with its added viscosity and texture, affects satiety and energy intake. Juice containing little fiber has been found to be less satiating than whole fruit or fruit purées (Bolton et al., 1981, Haber et al., 1977). In a study comparing preloads of various beverages, the effects of juice on food and energy intake did not differ from those of other caloric beverages such as regular cola or low-fat milk. All of the caloric beverages in that study were associated with increased energy intake (Almiron-Roig & Drewnowski, 2003). Thus, research comparing the effects of preloads of various caloric beverages that not yielded consistent results, but most studies indicate that caloric beverages consumed before a meal are associated with incomplete energy compensation.
Although drinks are frequently consumed with meals, this design is seldom employed when studying the influence of beverages on intake. One study in adults has examined the effect on energy intake of consuming different drinks with a meal. Rolls, Kim, and Fedoroff (1990) gave 14 men either lemonade sweetened with sucrose, lemonade sweetened with aspartame, water, or no drink with lunch. The results showed that food intake did not differ among the three beverage conditions. When the energy from the drinks was included, total energy intake was significantly greater with the sucrose-sweetened lemonade than with the non-caloric lemonade, with water, or with no drink.
In the present investigation, we expanded upon the study by Rolls et al. (1990) by testing the influence on meal intake of a greater variety of commonly consumed drinks that differed in their nutritive and sensory properties. The beverages tested were fruit juice, 1% milk, regular and diet cola, and water. We tested the hypothesis that total energy intake at a meal is influenced by the energy and nutrient content of beverages consumed with a meal, as well as their sensory characteristics. The results of this experiment will provide guidance for choosing beverages with meals in order to avoid excess energy intake.
Section snippets
Subjects
Normal-weight, overweight, and obese women were recruited by advertisement in the campus newspaper and electronic mailing lists of The Pennsylvania State University. Upon response to the advertisement, individuals completed a telephone interview to ensure that they met the initial criteria for inclusion in the study: 18–60 years of age; healthy and not using medication known to affect food intake or appetite; not athletes in training; not pregnant or lactating; non-smokers; free from food
Subjects
Forty-five subjects were enrolled in the study. One subject was excluded from the study after her first session because she had a nausea rating after lunch >35 mm on a 100-mm visual analog scale. The characteristics of the final sample of 44 women are shown in Table 2. Subjects had a range of values for ages as well as scores for dietary restraint, disinhibition, and perceived hunger. Thirty-six of the subjects were normal-weight, six were overweight, and two were obese.
Energy intake
Beverage type
Discussion
This study demonstrated that when beverages with different nutritive and sensory properties were consumed with a meal, the only property that significantly affected total energy intake at the meal was the energy content of the beverage. Consumption of a caloric beverage with lunch resulted in a mean increase in meal energy intake (including beverage) of 104 kcal (435 kJ) compared with consuming a non-caloric beverage. Despite this increased intake, subjects did not rate their fullness any higher
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health, grant DK39177.
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