Chapter Twenty Morphodynamics of muddy environments along the Atlantic coasts of North and South America

doi:10.1016/S1568-2692(02)80094-8

Proceedings in Marine Science

Volume 4, 2002, Pages 479-532

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1568-2692(02)80094-8 Get rights and content

Summary

The Atlantic coast of the North and South American continents, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, measures 37,000 km on a map of scale 1:5,000,000 (Figure 1). Portions of this coast are characterized by extensive regional mud deposits, especially where one or more rivers discharge significant quantities of suspended sediments to deltas and adjacent marginal estuaries, lagoons, chenier plains, and tidal flats. The delivery of terrigenous sediments by rivers is the main factor responsible for coastal mud deposits. Secondary factors favoring the development of muddy coastal deposits are a broad gently sloping coastal plain and adjacent shelf topography, macrotidal conditions, and the absence of energetic oceanic wind waves. Muddy coasts can equally well develop where relative sea level is rising or falling. Whereas large portions of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts of the USA and Mexico are subject to rapidly rising relative sea level, the Atlantic coast of South America experiences falling relative sea level. We describe five major muddy coasts along the American Atlantic in terms of their morphodynamics. These systems include (i) the mesotidal lagoon-salt marsh coast of the South Atlantic Bight (southeastern USA), (ii) the microtidal Mississippi River delta and chenier plains (USA), (iii) the macrotidal Amazon chenier plain coast of the Guyanas, (iv) the macrotidal mangrove coast of Pará and Maranhão (Brazil); and (v) the microtidal la Plata estuarine system (Argentina and Uruguay).

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The coastal zone of the Brazilian state of Maranhão is an area characterized by diverse human activities and services, in particular in the “Ponta da Madeira” shipping terminal. The present study evaluated the structure and spatiotemporal dynamics of the phytoplankton community of the shipping sector of São Marcos Bay. Additionally, the study also investigates the evidence of the presence of allochthonous phytoplankton species. Data were collected at three sampling stations during four months in the dry season and four months in the rainy season. The phytoplankton community structure and abiotic variables varied between seasons. Mean salinity was significantly higher in the dry season (33.6 ± 3.6), while water temperature (29.0 $\pm 0.3 °$ C) and turbidity (274.2 ± 11.9 NTU) were significantly higher during the rainy season. A total of 179 phytoplankton taxa were recorded, with the highest phytoplankton biomass (chlorophyll-a) observed during the rainy months (11.6 $\pm 7.8 μ$ g L⁻¹) reflecting the availability of dissolved nutrients, as well as the intense local hydrodynamics, which contribute to the re-suspension of benthic microalgae. The occurrence of species such as Chaetoceros danicus, Coscinodiscus cf. wailesii and Planctonema lauterbornii reported for the first time on the coast of Maranhão, as well as a number of potentially harmful species of microalgae reinforces the need for the continuous monitoring of the phytoplankton community of this shipping sector, in addition to the adoption of new approaches, such as toxicological studies, which may contribute to the prediction and prevention of the proliferation of harmful algae in the region.
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The planktonic decapod community was dominated by meroplanktonic larvae, especially in transects directly influenced by the ARP. The Amazonian coastal region concentrates the largest and most biomass-rich mangrove forests of the world (Herz, 1991; Giri et al., 2011), as well as the largest muddy coast (stretching from the Amazon River mouth to Orinoco River mouth in Venezuela), due to the sediments transported by the Amazon River dispersal system (Kjerfve et al., 2002). In addition to other complex habitats linked to the continental shelf, such as the extensive reef area recently recorded by Cordeiro et al. (2015) and Moura et al. (2016).
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The Falkland Plateau is an extension of the Patagonian Plateau, Argentina, towards the E (Fig. 14a). While the coast of the mainland displays different landforms from dissipative beaches, through dune fields dissected by estuaries which provide detrital material from the hinterland and give rise to sandy to muddy coastal sediments, the off-shore Falkland Islands are missing those point source landforms such as estuaries and are mostly self-sufficient with regard to the sediment supply as demonstrated by means of heavy mineral analysis (Kjerfve et al., 2002; Perillo et al., 2004; Dill and Skoda, 2017). The coastal landforms of the Falkland Islands have wide beaches characterized as a mix of arenaceous and gravelly siliciclastic sediments, which are laid down in small embayments and channels.
In the periglacial South Atlantic Ocean five coastal landform series (CLFS): CLFS1 (Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas), CLFS2 (Tierra del Fuego), CLFS3 (South Georgia + Scotia Ridge), CLFS 4 (South Shetland Archipelago) and CLFS 5 (Antarctic Peninsula) have been established and studied with regard to their geomorphology and sedimentary petrography. Although being several hundreds of kilometers apart from each other the majority of sites belong to the same climate zone, the polar tundra climate excluding the CLFS 1 which is more humid and the CLFS 5 on the opposite side that passes into the polar frost zone. The hydrographic regime is in the majority of cases microtidal, excluding some coastal regions in CLFS 1 and CLFS 5 where micro-mesotidal conditions exist around the volcanic edifices.
The climate variation has an impact on the weathering of the landforms, which abruptly changes from chemical to physical between CLFS 3 and 4, and gradually from CLFS 1 to CLFS 3 (oxidic ⇒ reducing regime, pH ⇒ more acidic meteoric fluids). The mineral assemblages representative of the supergene mineralization reflect an incipient stage of on “icehouse-hothouse” transition.
The CLFS 1 to 3 evolved in a geodynamically stable setting attested to by a high landscape maturity, whereas CLFS 4 and 5 are situated in a geodynamically mobile regime leading to structural landforms instead of sculptural ones of lower maturity.
The CLFS1 to CLFS 3 are characterized by landscape types of plains, channels, fjords and bays which incise or truncate highly to partially eroded mountain blocks which were uplifted near the coast and thereby overprint relic landforms such as peneplains and pediments. The three geomorphological processes shaping the area between land and sea are (1) coastal marine – landforms given in brackets (beach, cliffs - beach scarps, dunes plus aeolian sand sheets, fjord remodeled into channels, bays (drowned cirque glaciers), wave-cut platforms, tidal flats (rocky), tombolo), (2) glacial (boulder trains, cirque-tarn-lip, cryopediments (?), glacial-fluvial channels, moraines, outburst valleys and spillways, pattern grounds (plus stone runs), roches moutonnées through-to U-shaped valleys, and (3) mass wasting (rock fall transitional into –slide, talus plus soil creep). While mass wasting is a rather conservative process, the glacial land-forming processes increase in quality and intensity from CLFS 1 to CLFS 3. The coastal marine processes are rather conservative, excluding those processes which interdigitate with glacial marine processes, e.g., evolution of fjords and when strongly controlled by the magmatic and metamorphic lithology. The CLFS 4 and CLFS 5 are magmatic-arc, rift-, and fold belt-related. Both reference sites mark a volcanic landscape arising from the sea, the first one under subaerial, the second one under subglacial conditions. In these modern geodynamic settings structural volcanic landforms (cones, maars, craters, pyroclastic fans of flow and surge deposits, flat-topped volcanic plateaus, tuya) predominate. The coastal marine, glacial and mass wasting induced landform types resemble those of the CLFS 1 to CLFS 3. Among the mass wasting slide and flow deposits are more common near the beach. Among the glacial deposits moraines, arêtes and nunataks are more common in the coastal hinterland. The wave-dominated coastal marine landforms (beach, cliffs-beach scarps, wave cut platforms) become more variegated when the tidal range increases (tidal channel ⇒ ephemeral stream, tidal flats). There are also mixed types between alluvial-fluvial and glacial marine named embryonic glacial-marine fan deltas.
Based upon the current study an approximation of the relief generations or palaeo-landscapes can be achieved for the coastal region (hinderland + beach) in the S Atlantic Ocean: Peneplanation (relic form) – Oligo-Miocene ⇒ pedimentation (relic form) – Neogene ⇒ Glaciation and deglaciation conducive to depositional and erosive sculptural landforms = Volcanic activity conducive to structural landforms –Pleistocene-Holocene ⇒ Coastal marine and mass wasting processes conducive to depositional and erosive sculptural landforms - Pleistocene-Holocene. By analogy with similar geodynamic landscape types elsewhere the two principal landscapes are denominated as “Meso-Afro-American “(CLFS 1 to 3) and “Neo-American” (CLFS 4 and 5). These two technical terms are self-explanatory as to the geodynamic parent material and eligible for a maturity-based correlation of landscapes.
The combination of the clast orientation, granulometry, grain morphology and shape in combination with sorting and clast mineralogy (visual lithological inspection ⇒ X-ray diffraction ⇒ scanning electron microscope supplemented with WDX/EDX ⇒ electron microprobe ⇒ micro-Raman spectrometry) has proved to be a valuable tool to lend support to the genetic interpretation of the existing landform types mentioned above and to bridge the gap between actuogeological processes and ancient equivalent sites as being subjected to an environment or paleogeographic analyses. The poor chemical supergene alteration in the periglacial-coastal study area renders it favorable for the application of these sedimentological and mineralogical methods. In conclusion, this methodological approach is promising for all those climate zones with limited chemical weathering for which the diagrams and tables are designed as reference types such cold as hot dry cold climate zones and mountainous regions. Environments typical of depositional and transport processes driven by the (1) hydraulic and entrainment equivalence, (2) attrition and (3) winnowing are the prime targets for the use of these methods. Even polycyclic reworking processes in coastal landscapes where marine, glacial and gravity driven processes interfere with each other around structural geomorphological landforms or have originated from relic ones may be differentiated from each other.

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Chapter Twenty Morphodynamics of muddy environments along the Atlantic coasts of North and South America

Summary

Marine Geology

Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science

Marine Geology

Marine Geology

Continental Shelf Research

Netherlands Journal of Sea Research

Continental Shelf Research

Marine Geology

Journal of Environmental Radioactivity

Quaternary Science Reviews

Marine Geology

Continental Shelf Research

Continental Shelf Research

Continental Shelf Research

Marine Geology

Marine Geology

Marine Geology

Powder Technology

Contribuição, à geomorfologia do Estado do Maranhão

Notícia Geomorfológica

Shoreline erosion in coastal Louisiana Inventory and Assessment

Final Report to Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development

Mud on the oceanic shelf off Guyana

The changing shoreline of Surinam (South America)

Northern Brazil

The M2 tides on Amazon shelf

Journal of Geophysical Research

Principles of chemical sedimentology

Ocean currents along a nearshore frontal zone on the, continental shelf of the southeastern United States

Journal of Physical Oceanography

Transport and fate of river discharge on the continental shelf of the southeastern United States

Journal of Geophysical Research

Advection of momentum and buoyancy in a coastal ocean front

Journal of Physical Oceanography

Results, of recent geological studies in Surinam

Mededelingen Geologisch Mijnbouwkundige Dienst Surinam

Washover of deltaic barriers on the Louisiana coast

Transactions of the Gulf Coast Association Geological Society

The chenier plain and its stratigraphy, southwestern Louisiana

Transactions of the Gulf Coast Assocation Geological Society

Deltaic influences on shelf edge instability processes

Cyclic sedimentation in the Mississippi river deltaic plain

Transactions of the Gulf Coast Association Geological Society

Modern river deltas: variability of processes and sand bodies

New evidence from the southeastern U.S. for eustatic components in the late Holocene sea levels

Geoarchaeology

Sea-level fluctuations: emphasis on temporal correlations with records from areas with strong hydrological influences in the southeastern United States

Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue

Morphology, sedimentation processes, and growth pattern on the Amazon deep-sea fan

Geo-Marine Letters

Amazon cone: morphology, sediment, age, and growth pattern

Geological Society of America Bulletin

Demerara coastal investigation

Geomorphologie cotiere de l'Amapa-Bresil: Considerations sur la dinamique sedimentaire actuelle

Marine muds along the Guyana coast and their origin from the Amazon Basin

Contributions Mineralogy and Petrology

Levantamento exploratório. Reconhecimento dos solos do estado do Maranhão

Binding of Mineaal Grains by a Species of Thalassiosira

Geological investigation of the alluvial valley of the lower Mississippi River

Geology of the lower Merentau River basin and control structure sites: definitive project report, Merentau River, Louisiana

Geological investigations of the Atchafalaya basin and the problem of Mississippi River diversion

Late Quaternary deposits of the Mississippi River

Geological Society of America, Special Paper

Time series analyses of suspended sediment concentrations at North Inlet, South Carolina

Estuaries

The M₂ tides on Amazon shelf