The treatment of tardive dyskinesia—a systematic review and meta-analysis☆
Introduction
Since the 1950s, neuroleptic medication has been extensively used to treat people with chronic mental illnesses such as schizophrenia. These drugs can effectively control positive symptoms such as hallucinations, thought disorder and delusions and, when used as maintenance therapy, can reduce the risk of relapse of psychosis (Schooler and Keith, 1993). Neuroleptic medication, however, has been associated with a wide range of adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia (TD), a movement disorder characterized by abnormal, repetitive and involuntary movements. TD tends to have an insidious onset, followed by a prolonged but fluctuating course (American Psychiatric Association, 1992). Every year, 4–5% of those who continuously use these drugs begin to show signs of the disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1992), which can result in considerable social and physical disability (Barnes and Edwards, 1993).
There are few conditions in modern psychiatry that appear to be so consistently resistant to effective interventions as the treatment of neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. That so many different compounds have been used to treat TD over the last three decades is testament to our ineffectiveness in this area. To choose the best interventions, clinicians are usually guided by reviews in journal articles and textbooks. Over the last 25 years, reviewers have regularly attempted to collate the literature concerning the treatment of TD. Early reviews provided narrative summaries of trials (Kazamatsuri et al., 1972, Mackay and Sheppard, 1982), whereas more recent reviews have compared treatments quantitatively (American Psychiatric Association, 1992, Egan et al., 1997, Jeste and Wyatt, 1982, Jeste et al., 1988)
In recent years, systematic reviews and meta-analyses have been recognized as important tools in guiding clinicians and researchers (Chalmers and Altman, 1995, Kraemer and Pruyn, 1990, Sackett et al., 1997). Systematic reviews should have clear and reproducible methods sections. The rules for inclusion and exclusion of studies should be explicit and as bias-free as possible (Egger et al., 1997), and every effort should be made to identify and extract data from eligible trials.
Those who conduct systematic reviews and meta-analyses also have to decide on the type of trials to include. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), because of their ability to reduce the risk of bias and confounding (Sackett and Wennberg, 1997, World Health Organization, 1991), are widely regarded as the most stringent research design available to assess the efficacy of an intervention. In the development of evidence-based practice guidelines, it is not unusual for RCTs to be given more weight than other types of controlled trials (e.g. pre-post design) and the combination of a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCT-derived data is accorded the greatest weight (Guyatt et al., 1995).
It has been difficult to compare the large number of different interventions used to treat TD because: (1) many different scales have been used to measure TD, (2) statistical techniques used to assess the impact of the intervention have varied widely, and (3) there has been a lack of uniformity in the reporting of results. Also, many trials have used small sample sizes, leading to a higher probability of Type II error. Meta-analysis uses a uniform method of extracting data from different studies and, by combining the results of several studies, increases the power to identify true clinical effects.
In response to these issues, the Cochrane Collaboration, an international network of clinicians and researchers, was developed to prepare, maintain and disseminate comprehensive and systematic reviews of the effects of all types of health care (Chalmers et al., 1992, Chalmers et al., 1997). The Cochrane Collaboration focuses on state-of-the-art systematic reviews and meta-analysis based on RCT-derived evidence. These reviews are available in CD-ROM format (Cochrane Collaboration, 1998). Over the last two years, the authors have undertaken systematic reviews and meta-analyses under the auspices of the Cochrane Collaboration, which has examined the various treatments of TD. In this paper, we will summarize the essential features of these reviews and compare the efficacy and safety of the many interventions that have been used to treat TD. Our main goal is to provide high-quality objective data on the treatment of TD to health-care providers, consumers and those involved in the development of evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. In addition, we hope that this systematic review and meta-analysis may help researchers identify deficits in our knowledge base about the treatment of TD that may be suitable for future research.
Section snippets
Selection of trials
Several electronic databases (Armstrong, 1993) (Biological Abstracts, Cochrane Controlled Trial Register, EMBASE, LILACS, MEDLINE, and PsycLIT) were systematically searched from January 1966 to September 1997 (details of the search strategies available from the authors). Once identified, each RCT was sought as a citation on the SCISEARCH database in order to identify more potential RCTs (Armstrong, 1993). The reference list of each RCT found was checked for more potential RCTs.
Inclusion criteria
Both authors
Trial allocation
After the removal of duplicates, the search strategies generated 3830 references. The title and abstract of these references were reviewed in order to identify controlled clinical trials. Both authors read the full text of all potential controlled clinical trials, resulting in the identification of 296 trials. These trials, which involved 114 different intervention, were then systematically allocated to one of three categories: Included, Excluded, Awaiting Assessment. Following this process, 47
Discussion
Of the 24 different interventions analyzed, only seven were identified by this systematic review as effective treatments for TD. Table 2 lists interventions according to whether or not we were able to locate RCT-derived evidence. Those with RCT-derived evidence were further subdivided according to the “strength” of the evidence base (meta-analysis based on three or more trials listed under “reasonable evidence base”) and efficacy compared to placebo (equivalent versus superior to placebo).
Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to the many trialists who assisted this project. We also acknowledge the support of Clive Adams, Geoff Davies, Jon Deeks, Robyn Hayes, Jair Mari, Kirsten Mason, Carmel Meir, Leanne Roberts and Rochelle Seifas for assistance with this project.
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2013, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological PsychiatryCitation Excerpt :TD is characterized by involuntary, hyperkinetic, abnormal movements (Correll and Schenk, 2008; de Leon, 2007; Remington, 2007), the presence of which is associated with poor quality of life, non-adherence with medications, and increased medical morbidity and mortality (Ballesteros et al., 2000; Browne et al., 1996; Youssef and Waddington, 1987). The pathophysiology of TD is not well understood and treatments lack efficacy, therefore prevention and early recognition may help improve treatment outcome (Remington, 2007; Soares and McGrath, 1999). A number of risk factors have been associated with increased risk of developing TD.
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This project was presented at the 9th Biennial Winter Workshop for Schizophrenia (Davos, Switzerland) with the travel expenses funding by FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa Estado de São Paulo). The project was supported by CAPES (Ministry of Education, Brazil) and the Queensland Health (Australia).