New technologies, new differences. Gender and ethnic differences in pupils' use of ICT in primary and secondary education
Introduction
In recent years, ICT has rapidly acquired a place in society. Without doubt, this is also true of education. After the initial emphasis on learning about ICT, it is now increasingly used as a learning tool in all forms and all levels of education. The question is whether this development has the same meaning and consequences for all pupils. Pupils differ in their experience of and attitude toward ICT. At home they do not all have the same access to ICT and they use the ICT resources available at home differently. In this way, differences in ICT knowledge and skills develop between pupils. Against this background, the increasing role of ICT as a learning tool could cause problems for pupils who have less experience of technology or have less affinity with ICT. Earlier research shows that girls and pupils from an ethnic-minority background are two groups who require special attention in this respect. Differences between pupils with different social-economic backgrounds are also mentioned in this respect but scarcely any research has been done on this (Sutton, 1991; Volman and Van Eck, 2001).
Most research in this field by far is on gender differences. It is an established fact that there are gender differences in ICT use both at home and at school, regardless of the availability and access to ICT resources (Janssen Reinen and Plomp, 1997). Research also shows persistent gender differences in computer attitudes (e.g., Comber et al., 1997; Durndell and Thomson, 1997). Concern about ethnic differences and ICT use at school is mainly based on surveys indicating that computers are unevenly distributed among different groups of the population (Novak and Hoffman, 1998). Very little is known, however, about ethnic differences in knowledge, skills and attitudes in the literature.
It has become clear in recent years that observations about differences between groups of pupils regarding ICT should differentiate between the types of ICT application (e.g., Kay, 1992). Girls answer general questions about ICT attitude, for example, less positively than boys but are enthusiastic about applications like word processing and drawing (Volman and Van Eck, 2001). Such nuances, however, are not made in the large-scale surveys which are frequently the source of information on differences between pupils in computer use, skills and attitude. This was the reason for setting up an exploratory empirical study on how attractive and accessible the use of different types of ICT applications at school are for different groups of pupils. The results of this research should provide schools with input for developing a diversity-oriented ICT policy.1
Four basic differences between pupils can be found in the literature on the use of ICT in education: differences in pupils' participation in ICT activities at home and at school, in both knowledge about ICT and knowledge that is the result of learning with ICT, in pupils' attitudes, and in their approach to working with ICT. We therefore formulated the following research questions:
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to what extent do gender differences and ethnic differences exist in participation in using ICT applications?
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to what extent do gender differences and ethnic differences exist in ICT skills and learning outcomes of pupils using ICT applications?
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to what extent do gender differences and ethnic differences exist in the attitude of pupils towards ICT applications?
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to what extent do gender differences and ethnic differences exist in the approach of pupils in their use of ICT applications?
Below we will first describe the study that was set up to answer these questions and then present the results. We conclude with a discussion on the guidelines resulting from this research on a diversity-oriented ICT policy in schools.
Section snippets
Method
The research questions were answered with the help of a literature study and empirical research in seven Dutch schools (four primary and three secondary schools). We collected data on the participation, skills and learning outcomes, attitudes and approaches of pupils working with certain ICT applications. Six promising ICT applications used by relatively a lot of schools were selected for this purpose. Our aim in the primary schools was variation in level (intermediate level and upper years,
Results
In this paper, we will not discuss the results of the individual schools and the specific applications but will look at the results as a whole from the perspective of gender differences and ethnic differences in the use of ICT in primary and secondary education. The findings on differences in participation, ICT skills and learning outcomes, attitudes, and pupils' approach will be discussed. The results from the general part of the questionnaire will in each case be discussed first. We will then
Conclusion
Our empirical research studied issues related to the use of ICT in which gender and ethnic differences have been identified in the literature, namely computer use in and out of school, computer skills, learning outcomes when ICT is used, pupils' attitudes towards ICT and their way of working with computers. In primary education, gender differences regarding all these points are small. Ethnic differences, however, do exist. First and foremost, fewer pupils from an ethnic-minority background have
Dr. Monique Volman is an associate professor at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Her areas of specialization are educational technology, social competence, and social and cultural differences between students.
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Dr. Monique Volman is an associate professor at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Her areas of specialization are educational technology, social competence, and social and cultural differences between students.
Edith van Eck is a senior researcher at the SCO Kohnstamm Institute of the University of Amsterdam. Her work focuses on gender inequality in education, educational technology, and the educational labour market.
Irma Heemskerk is a researcher at the SCO Kohnstamm Institute of the University of Amsterdam. She is currently working on a PhD thesis on the selective effects of the use of ICT in secondary education.
Els Kuiper is a researcher at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. She is currently preparing a PhD thesis on the use of the WWW in primary education.