Chapter 7 - On-Line Sample Pretreatment: Extraction and Preconcentration

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This chapter focuses on on-line sample pretreatment for chemical analysis prior to the measurement that is based on flow injection, sequential injection, and other related techniques. In chemical analyses, various kinds of detection methods—such as spectrophotometry, fluorophotometry, chemiluminescence (CL) detection, spectroscopy, and electrochemical detection—are used. In most cases, some pretreatment procedures prior to the measurement are requisite for improving sensitivity, reproducibility, and accuracy. Flow injection analysis (FIA) is one of the most useful and versatile techniques for automated analysis and is widely applied to routine analyses in various fields. By the combination of solvent extraction (SE) with the flow injection technique (SE-FIA), SE can be performed online in a flowing stream with smaller amounts of extraction solvents and with minimal solvent release to the laboratory atmosphere. Therefore, SE-FIA is an essential analytical tool for the separation and preconcentration of analytes.

Section snippets

INTRODUCTION

This chapter focuses on on-line sample pretreatment for chemical analysis prior to measurement, which is based on flow injection, sequential injection, and other related techniques.

In chemical analyses, various kinds of detection method have been used; they are spectrophotometry, fluorophotometry, chemiluminescence (CL) detection, spectroscopy (AAS, ICP-MS, ICP-AES), electrochemical detection, etc. In most cases, some pretreatment procedures prior to the measurement are requisite for improving

LIQUID–LIQUID EXTRACTION (SOLVENT EXTRACTION, SE) WITHOUT MEMBRANE

Liquid–liquid extraction or solvent extraction (SE) is frequently used for sample pretreatment in order to separate an analyte from interfering substances in the sample matrix, to preconcentrate the analyte for enhancing sensitivity, or to improve the limit of detection. This technology is very useful, and has been widely used in pharmaceutical, environmental, agricultural, and industrial analyses. Batchwise SE, however, is very tedious and time-consuming and needs a large amount of organic

LIQUID–SOLID EXTRACTION (SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION, SPE) OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC SUBSTANCES

Olsen et al. first reported the use of on-line solid phase extraction (SPE) in FIA [27], and subsequently similar technologies have often been applied to the enrichment of analytes and the removal of the matrix. On-line SPE techniques in FIA, SIA, SIA-LAV, and SIA-LOV (lab-on-valve) are clearly advantageous in performing sample-pretreatment processes such as sample clean-up, analyte preconcentration, and removal of matrices and/or interfering substances. Use of on-line SPE-FIA methods has

GAS–LIQUID EXTRACTION BASED ON MASS TRANSFER

The mass transfer of analytes from a gaseous phase to a liquid phase has traditionally been performed by bubbling the gas phase into a liquid phase. This classical approach is very simple and the collection efficiency can often reach almost 100%, although it needs a long time to achieve a high enrichment factor, and is difficult to miniaturize and incorporate a bubbling system in a flow analysis system. To overcome the disadvantages of the gas bubbling methods, several gas–liquid extraction

ON-LINE PRETREATMENT SYSTEM, INCLUDING COMPUTER-CONTROLLED AUTOMATED SYSTEMS

Various kinds of on-line sample-pretreatment devices for preconcentration have been applied to FIA and SIA. In general, the preconcentration process needs tedious and time-consuming procedures. If the preconcentration process is carried out on-line by conventional FIA, the system will become very complicated, several pumping systems and switching valves are necessary to assemble the system, and large volumes of a carrier and reagents are necessary. As a result, large amounts of waste are

Abbreviations

    4-AAP

    4-aminoantipyrine

    ANS

    anilinonaphthalenesulfonate

    CL

    chemiluminescence

    CMC

    chromatomembrane cell

    CTAB

    cetyltrimethylammonium bromide

    CTFE

    poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene)

    CVAAS

    cold vapor atomic absorption spectrophotometry

    CXA

    N-cinnamoyl-N-(2,3-xylyl)hydroxylamine

    DDAP

    ammonium diethyl dithiophosphate

    DHN

    2,3-Dihydroxynaphthalene

    DHNS

    1,8-Dihydroxy-3,6-naphthalenedisulphonic acid

    DN

    denuder

    EDDP

    ethylenediamine-N,N′-dipropionic acid, dihydrochloride

    FAAS

    Flame atomic absorption spectrometry

    GDS

    Gas diffusion scrubber

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