The effect of chloroquine, quinacrine, and metronidazole on both soybean plants and soil microbiota

doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(01)00139-4

Chemosphere

Volume 46, Issue 7, February 2002, Pages 1019-1025

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(01)00139-4 Get rights and content

Abstract

Chloroquine, quinacrine, and metronidazole are used extensively for therapeutic purposes. Substantial quantities of these compounds end up in the environment. The potential effect of these compounds on soybean and on the protozoa in soil was assessed. The growth of soybean plants was affected by increasing concentrations of the chloroquine, metronidazole, and quinacrine dihydrochloride. The plants were particularly sensitive to low concentrations of metronidazole. The number of bacteria and protozoa in soil was either unchanged or increased in the presence of chloroquine and quinacrine. However, in the presence of only 0.5 mg metronidazole g⁻¹ soil, the density of protozoa in the rhizosphere was reduced by a 10-fold.

Introduction

The fate of medical and metabolic effects of antimicrobial agents on humans and animals has been widely researched. However, limited assessment of the environmental risks involved in exposing the medical substances to the environment has been conducted. A variety of these medical agents may pass through the systems of the target organisms, spreading into the environment (Halling-Sørensen et al., 1998). Once in the environment, these compounds may persist for some duration depending on the chemical structure, temperature, and a variety of environmental factors (Gavalchin and Katz, 1994). Chloroquine, metronidazole and quinacrine are extensively used therapeutically against protozoa infections such as Giardia sp., Plasmodium sp., Trichomonas sp., and in the case of metronidazole, against some anaerobic bacteria pathogens. Anti-protozoan agents and their metabolites have been detected in urine and feces of patients in therapeutic treatment (Connor et al., 1977; Maschke et al., 1997), a major route through which they can be exposed to the environment where their fate and effects remain unknown. There is a need for ecotoxicological evaluation of drugs (Lanzky and Halling-Sørensen, 1997).

Some anti-microbial compounds negatively affected the growth and development of plants, the effect varying between plant species (Batchelder, 1981, Batchelder, 1982). Information about how chloroquine, metronidazole and quinacrine might affect the soil biota and plants is lacking. These compounds can be introduced into soil when manure, wastewater, and treated sludge are applied to agricultural fields. The biodegradability of these compounds during the waste treatment process is unknown (Lanzky and Halling-Sørensen, 1997). Since chloroquine, metronidazole and quinacrine are designed to control protozoa in humans and other animals, they are likely to be potentially hazardous to protozoa in soil when manure, sludge or wastewater that contains their residues is applied to soil. Thus, it is likely that soil protozoa would serve as a reasonable bio-indicator of the effects of any of these compounds on the environment.

Considering the wide use of these compounds for therapeutic reasons and in veterinary medicine (Halling-Sørensen et al., 1998; Spikes, 1998; Sørensen and Hansen, 2000), it is necessary to accumulate information about their potential effects on soil microorganisms and plants. Preliminary studies were conducted to determine the potential effects of chloroquine, metronidazole and quinacrine on both soil microbiota (bacteria and protozoa) and on soybean (Glycine max) plants.

Section snippets

Anti-microbial agents

Chloroquine, metronidazole and quinacrine dihydrochloride were obtained from Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Missouri, USA. The molecular structures are shown in Fig. 1. All of the compounds are readily soluble in water. Prior to use, stock solutions of chloroquine, quinacrine dihydrochloride and metronidazole were prepared by dissolving 60, 20 and 7.5 mg ml⁻¹, respectively, in deionized water.

Soil

A sample of Palmyra gravelly silt loam (pH 6.6% and 4.9% organic matter) was collected from the top

Effectiveness of the test compounds

In the absence of an anti-protozoan compound, T. pyriformis populations attained a population of $4×10^{5} ml^{−1}$ in axenic culture after 20 h (Fig. 2). However, with increasing concentrations of chloroquine or metronidazole, these T. pyriformis decreased. As much as 32 mg chloroquine ml⁻¹ were required to dramatically decrease the protozoa populations to below the detection limit of 1×10⁴ protozoa ml⁻¹ in less than 18 h. A metronidazole concentration of 5.7 mg ml⁻¹ depressed the numbers of T.

Discussion

The soybean plants were sensitive to all of the three anti-microbial agents tested but the sensitivity greatly differed between compounds. Most detrimental to the soybean plants is metronidazole since concentrations as low as 0.5 mg metronidazole g⁻¹ soil adversely affected the plants. Metronidazole is weakly adsorbed to soils (Rablølle and Spliid, 2000) and this could have enabled most of the added compound to remain in the soil solution, making it readily available for uptake by the plants.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the Cornell International Institute for Food and Agricultural Development (CIIFAD) at Cornell University and the Uganda National Agricultural Research Organization. UMR147 and T. pyriformis B2082 II were provided by Dr. Peter Graham (Rhizobium Research Laboratory at the University of Minnesota) and Dr. P.J. Bruns (Cornell University), respectively.

Patrick K. Jjemba holds a Master's degree in Soil Science and a Ph.D. in Soil Microbiology. He is currently a Director of Laboratory at Environmental Associates Ltd. in Ithaca, NY.

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Patrick K. Jjemba holds a Master's degree in Soil Science and a Ph.D. in Soil Microbiology. He is currently a Director of Laboratory at Environmental Associates Ltd. in Ithaca, NY.

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The effect of chloroquine, quinacrine, and metronidazole on both soybean plants and soil microbiota

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Anti-microbial agents

Soil

Effectiveness of the test compounds

Discussion

Acknowledgements

Journal of Theoretical Biology

Chemosphere

Chemosphere

FEMS Microbiology Review

Chemosphere

Soil Biology and Biochemistry

Chemosphere

Chemosphere

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology

Chlorotetracycline and oxytetracycline effects on plant growth and development in liquid culture

Journal of Environmental Quality

Chlorotetracycline and oxytetracycline effects on plant growth and development in soil systems

Journal of Environmental Quality

The contribution of metronidazole and two metabolites to the mutagenic activity detected in urine of treated humans and mice

Cancer Research

The persistence of feacal-borne antibiotics in soil

Journal of AOAC International

Antiprotozoal drugs