Automatic control of limb movement and posture

doi:10.1016/0959-4388(92)90138-B

Current Opinion in Neurobiology

Volume 2, Issue 6, December 1992, Pages 807-814

https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4388(92)90138-B Get rights and content

Abstract

Studies are reviewed that address the problem of the variables controlled by the central nervous system in the maintenance of body posture and limb movement against disturbing forces. The role of global variables of control, which take into account the dynamic state of the limb, is discussed. Neural substrates that are involved in the distributed control of kinematic and dynamic parameters are also considered.

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Influence of prolonged wearing of unstable shoes on upright standing postural control
2016, Human Movement Science
Citation Excerpt :
The reduction of the P–P of RM trajectory in the anteroposterior direction reflects a higher efficiency of the postural control system (Bennell & Goldie, 1994; Kinzey et al., 1997; Norris et al., 2005; Prieto et al., 1996) related to supraspinal processes that define an instantaneous point about which the body is stabilised (Zatsiorsky & Duarte, 1999, 2000). The increased MV of the RM component could be related to a reweighted combination of reciprocal activation and co-activation commands (Drew & Rossignol, 1987; Feldman, 1980a, 1980b; Feldman & Levin, 1995; Lacquaniti, 1992; Lacquaniti, Borghese, & Carrozzo, 1991; Levin, Feldman, Milner, & Lamarre, 1992). Indeed, the results of this study reveal that prolonged wearing of the unstable shoes led to a large effect in the increase of thigh antagonist co-activation.
To study the influence of prolonged wearing of unstable shoes on standing postural control in prolonged standing workers.
The participants were divided into two groups: one wore unstable shoes while the other wore conventional shoes for 8 weeks. Stabilometry parameters related to centre of pressure (CoP), rambling (RM) and trembling (TR) as well as the total agonist/antagonist muscle activity, antagonist co-activation and reciprocal activation were evaluated during upright standing, before and after the 8 weeks period. In both moments, the subjects were evaluated wearing the unstable shoes and in barefoot.
The unstable shoe condition presented increased CoP displacement related variables and decreased co-activation command compared to barefoot before and after the intervention. The prolonged wearing of unstable shoes led to: (1) reduction of medial–lateral CoP root mean square and area; (2) decreased anteroposterior RM displacement; (3) increased anteroposterior RM mean velocity and mediolateral RM displacement; (4) decreased anteroposterior TR RMS; and (5) increased thigh antagonist co-activation in the unstable shoe condition.
The unstable shoe condition is associated to a higher destabilising effect that leads to a selection of more efficient and accurate postural commands compared to barefoot. Prolonged wearing of unstable shoes provides increased effectiveness and performance of the postural control system, while wearing of unstable shoes in upright standing, that are reflected by changes in CoP related variables and by a reorganisation of postural control commands.
Online kinematic regulation by visual feedback for grasp versus transport during reach-to-pinch
2014, Human Movement Science
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Visual feedback appears to be integral for both early-motor planning in coordinating grasp and final convergence of the digits upon the target. Accuracy for complex multi-joint tasks require updating the representation of limb mechanical properties (Lacquaniti, 1992). As with the movement planning for the reaching limb (Ghez, Gordon, & Ghilardi, 1995), our results suggest that vision may serve as the feedback necessary to continually update the system representation, including dynamic properties, for movement planning of the grasping digits.
This study investigated novel kinematic performance parameters to understand regulation by visual feedback (VF) of the reaching hand on the grasp and transport components during the reach-to-pinch maneuver. Conventional metrics often signify discrete movement features to postulate sensory-based control effects (e.g., time for maximum velocity to signify feedback delay). The presented metrics of this study were devised to characterize relative vision-based control of the sub-movements across the entire maneuver.
Movement performance was assessed according to reduced variability and increased efficiency of kinematic trajectories. Variability was calculated as the standard deviation about the observed mean trajectory for a given subject and VF condition across kinematic derivatives for sub-movements of inter-pad grasp (distance between thumb and index finger-pads; relative orientation of finger-pads) and transport (distance traversed by wrist). A Markov analysis then examined the probabilistic effect of VF on which movement component exhibited higher variability over phases of the complete maneuver. Jerk-based metrics of smoothness (minimal jerk) and energy (integrated jerk-squared) were applied to indicate total movement efficiency with VF.
The reductions in grasp variability metrics with VF were significantly greater (p < .05) compared to transport for velocity, acceleration, and jerk, suggesting separate control pathways for each component. The Markov analysis indicated that VF preferentially regulates grasp over transport when continuous control is modeled probabilistically during the movement. Efficiency measures demonstrated VF to be more integral for early motor planning of grasp than transport in producing greater increases in smoothness and trajectory adjustments (i.e., jerk-energy) early compared to late in the movement cycle.
These findings demonstrate the greater regulation by VF on kinematic performance of grasp compared to transport and how particular features of this relativistic control occur continually over the maneuver. Utilizing the advanced performance metrics presented in this study facilitated characterization of VF effects continuously across the entire movement in corroborating the notion of separate control pathways for each component.
Posture and hand load alter muscular response to sudden elbow perturbations
2012, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology
Citation Excerpt :
Muscle activation is closely related to stiffness (Darainy et al., 2004; Franklin et al., 2003) with the simultaneous activation of muscles crossing a joint increasing joint stiffness and stability (Akazawa et al., 1983; De Serres and Milner, 1991; Stokes and Gardner-Morse, 2000; Osu et al., 2002). However, the perturbation response magnitude can be task and context specific (Hasan, 1992; Lacquaniti, 1992). Joint stiffness increases with changes in muscle activity, co-contraction, muscular synergy and limb position (van Loon et al., 2001).
Joint stiffness and stability are reliant on coordinated muscle activity which may differ depending on initial posture and loading during sudden perturbations. This study investigated the effects of arm posture and hand load on muscle activity during perturbations of the arm. Fifteen male participants experienced perturbations to the wrist causing elbow extension using a combination of three body postures (standing, supine, sitting) and three hand load conditions (no, solid, and fluid loads), with known and unknown timing. Surface EMG was collected from eight muscles of the right upper extremity. The response to sudden loading was examined using muscle activities pre (baseline) and post (reflex) perturbation. During the baseline period, known perturbation timing resulted in greater muscular activity than for unknown timing, while the opposite was found for the reflex period. During the reflex period with fluid load, biceps brachii and brachioradialis demonstrated increased activity of 2.4% and 4.0% of maximum respectively, from supine to standing. During the reflex period, the fluid load resulted in forearm co-contraction 23% and 47% greater than the solid and no load conditions. Body orientation and hand loading influenced muscular response to elbow perturbations. Muscle co-contraction at the elbow during known timing suggests a contribution to elbow joint stability that may reduce injury risk caused by sudden elbow loading.
Review of motor control mechanisms underlying impact absorption from falls
2005, Gait and Posture
The absorption of impacts resulting from contact with a landing surface during gait, running and drop landings has received considerable attention in the literature. This research has important clinical relevance as failure to appropriately plan and control impact absorption may lead to injuries to the musculo-skeletal system. This review attempts to summarize evidence gathered by studies on the motor control aspects of impact absorption during landing movements. Although this review focuses primarily on the control of landings from self-initiated falls or ‘drop landings’, an understanding of the motor control mechanisms underlying impact absorption is essential to understand common anticipatory and reflex mechanisms involved in a broader variety of movements such as running and jumping. The review is structured in three parts: the first two parts examine the preparatory muscle activity occurring during the fall (Part I) and after touch down (Part II). Part III explores the proposed sensorimotor mechanisms underlying the control of landing. The review concludes with as yet unresolved questions and directions for future research.
Postural and resting tremor in the upper limb
2000, Clinical Neurophysiology
Objective: Tremor from multiple segments of the upper limb was recorded under postural and resting conditions. The aims of this study were to examine the nature of tremor within a single limb segment, intra- and inter-limb co-ordination of tremor, and the influence of cardiac mechanical events on physiological tremor.
Methods: Tremor was recorded from eight healthy adult subjects during a postural pointing task where the level of support for the upper limb segments was successively increased. The dynamics of tremor within a single segment were examined using power spectral, ApEn and amplitude analyses. Inter-segment tremor relations were determined using coherence and Cross-correlation analyses.
Results: Single segment analysis demonstrated that each (unsupported) limb segment contained two major frequency peaks (at 1–4 Hz and 8–12 Hz). Both peaks were still evident in the distal segments when the proximal segments were supported. External support of the more proximal limb segments also resulted in decreased finger tremor, but these changes were not simply additive over segments within a limb or equal across fingers. There were significant relations between adjacent proximal and distal limb segment pairs but no correlations between contralateral limb segments or between heart rate and limb tremor.
Conclusions: These findings imply that: the low frequency component (1–4 Hz) of physiological tremor in the hand and finger could not be attributed to passive transmission of oscillations from the upper arm and forearm; and the contribution of proximal segments on tremor in the index finger tremor could not be predicted from mechanical principles alone. The minimization of finger tremor involved compensatory coupling of segments of the upper arm with particular emphasis upon active control of the wrist joint.
Multi-muscle control of head movements in monkeys: The referent configuration hypothesis
2000, Neuroscience Letters
It is suggested that the nervous system may specify a referent configuration (R) of the body determined by the set of the threshold joint angles at which all skeletal muscles may be silent. At the same time, electromyographic (EMG) activity and forces are generated to resist deflections of the body from this configuration. The R configuration may thus be considered an internal geometric image with which the actual body configuration (Q) is compared. Thereby the difference between the R and Q is a major factor determining the recruitment and gradation of the activity of each skeletal muscle. Control systems may produce movements by changing the R configuration according to task demands. The referent hypothesis predicts that when the R and Q configurations match each other, a global minimum in the EMG activity of all muscles involved should occur, an event most likely observed in movements with reversal in direction. To test the validity of the R hypothesis for head movements, three-dimensional kinematics and EMG activity of 14 functionally diverse neck muscles were analysed in monkeys during head rotations to and from fruit targets placed beyond the oculomotor range. Despite the functional and anatomical diversity of the neck muscles, the activity of all muscles was minimised at a reversal point of the movement trajectory, as predicted by the R hypothesis. This study thus illustrates the notion that a change in the internal geometric image of a biomechanical system may underlie movement production.

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View full text

Automatic control of limb movement and posture

Abstract

Prog Neurobiol

Curr Opin Neurobiol

J Neurosci

Exp Brain Res

J Physiol (Lond)

J Neurophysiol

Human Neuronal Control of Automatic Functional Movements: Interaction Between Central Programs and Afferent Input

Physiol Rev

Relation Between Structure and Function in Information Transfer in Spinal Monosynaptic Reflex

Physiol Rev

Moving in Three-Dimensional Space: Frames of Reference, Vectors, and Coordinate Systems

Annu Rev Neurosci

Optimal and Adaptive Control in Canine Postural Regulation

Am J Physiol

The Organization of Human Postural Movements: a Formal Basis and Experimental Synthesis

Behav Brain Sci

Cat Posture on a Tilted Platform

Exp Brain Res

The Control of Limb Geometry in Cat Posture

J Physiol (Lond)

Distributed Control of Limb Position and Force

A New Solution to the Problem of the Subjective Vertical

Naturwissen

Head Stabilization During Various Locomotor Tasks in Humans

Exp Brain Res

The Role of Vision in the Control of Posture During Linear Motion

Prog Brain Res

Parallel Processing of Multisensory Information Concerning Self-Motion

Exp Brain Res

Early Stages in a Sensorimotor Transformation

Behav Brain Sci

Higher Order Motor Control

Annu Rev Neurosci

Visuomotor Coordination in Reaching and Locomotion

Science

Strategies that Simplify the Control of Quadrupedal Stance. I: Forces at the Ground

J Neurophysiol

How Flexible are Muscle Synergies?

The Spinal Frog Takes into Account the Scheme of its Body During the Wiping Reflex

Science

Convergent Force Fields Organized in the Frog's Spinal Cord

J Neurosci

Peripheral Control of the Cat's Step Cycle. I. Phase Dependent Effects of Ramp Movements of the Hip During Fictive Locomotion

Acta Physiol Scand

Postural Strategies Associated with Somatosensory and Vestibular Loss

Exp Brain Res

Bilateral Labyrinthectomy in the Cat: Motor Behaviour and Quiet Stance Parameters

Exp Brain Res

Spatial Organization of Neck and Vestibular Reflexes Acting on the Forelimbs of the Decerebrate Cat

J Neurophysiol

Vestibulospinal and Neck Reflexes: Interaction in the Vestibular Nuclei

Arch Ital Biol

Convergence and Interaction of Neck and Macular Vestibular Inputs of Vestibulospinal Neurons

J Neurophysiol

Response of Pontomedullary Reticulospinal Neurons to Vestibular Stimuli in Vertical Planes. Role in Vertical Vestibulospinal Reflexes of the Decerebrate Cat

J Neurophysiol

Microinjections of Vasopressin in the Locus Coeruleus Complex Affect Posture and Vestibulospinal Reflexes in Decerebrate Cats

Pflügers Arch

Cholinoceptive Pontine Reticular Structures Modify the Postural Adjustments During the Limb Movements Induced by Cortical Stimulation

Arch Ital Biol

System Identification of Human Joint Dynamics

CRC Crit Rev Biomed Engin

The Effect of Variable Mechanical Impedance on the Control of Antagonistic Muscles

Biol Cybern

A Mathematical Analysis of the Force-Stiffness Characteristics of Muscles in Control of a Single Joint System

Biol Cybern

The Mechanical Behavior of the Human Forearm in Response to Transient Perturbations

Biol Cybern

Virtual Trajectories of Single Joint Movements Performed Under Two Basic Strategies

Neuroscience