Effect of temperature, pH, antibiotics, formalin and malachite green on the growth and survival of Saprolegnia and Achlya parastic on fish

doi:10.1016/0044-8486(78)90009-1

Aquaculture

Volume 13, Issue 3, March 1978, Pages 273-288

https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(78)90009-1 Get rights and content

Abstract

Twenty-four strains of Saprolegnia and Achlya were isolated from different fish-rearing ecosystems and from diseased carp. Special test methods were developed to measure growth of the strains at different pH and temperature levels. Sensitivity and survival were determined for antibiotics and for 40 concentrations of formalin, malachite green and formalin-malachite green mixture.

Out of the 33 antibiotics tested only nalidixic acid exerted a significant growth inhibiting effect. The minimum bathing treatment times necessary for 100% mortality (LT 100) at the different concentrations were determined, and then efficiency curves were constructed by means of computerized analysis of the data. A wide choice of concentrations and treatment times is suggested for practical use.

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Malachite green (MG) dye is a known micro-pollutant which abundantly present in industrial effluent, causing vulnerability in green flora. MG dye is non-biodegradable compound which persist in the environment for longer period and infiltrate the food chain. It is able to produce genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects on living beings. Nowadays, the application of efficient and resourceful wastewater treatment technology is prompted by the worldwide communities without causing further damage to ecosystem. Recently, various microorganisms and plants have been considered as proficient scavenger for MG. This review highlights the application areas and the toxicological impact of MG dyes on aquatic and terrestrial plants. Biological metabolic processes and phytoremediation have been recognized as environmental friendly and valuable approaches for the degradation, removal, and detoxification of MG dye. Therefore, it also emphasizes the functional characteristics of various plant species and their metabolic capacities which facilitate them to deal with MG dyes successfully.
Pharmacokinetics and residue elimination of metalaxyl enantiomers in snakehead (Channa argus)
2023, Aquaculture
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In the past, the effective drug to control saprolegniasis was malachite green. Malachite green has been widely used by the aquaculture industry around the world for many years in the absence of an authorized veterinary drug substitute (Abdel-Fattah Mostafa et al., 2020; Oláh and Farkas, 1978). However, the application of malachite green has been proved to be carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic (Pierrard et al., 2012), so many countries have included malachite green on the list of banned drugs (MOARA, 2019).
Metalaxyl is widely used as a racemic mixture to control various plant and aquatic animal diseases caused by fungal infection. It has been proved that the two enantiomers of metalaxyl have significant differences in activity and toxicity, while little is known about the pharmacokinetics and residual elimination of the individual enantiomers of metalaxyl in aquatic animals. In this study, a simple, sensitive and reliable chiral liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was established for the determination of metalaxyl and its metabolite metalaxyl acid enantiomers, which was applied to study the stereoselective pharmacokinetics and residue elimination of individual enantiomers in snakehead (Channa argus). The snakehead was bath administered with the racemic metalaxyl and the highly active enantiomeric R-metalaxyl, respectively. The results showed that the elimination of metalaxyl in the plasma and tissues of snakehead was enantioselective. The concentration of metalaxyl in tissues was kidney > liver > muscle, and preferential degradation of the R-metalaxyl enantiomer was observed in three tissues. However, no transformation between metalaxyl enantiomers was observed in snakehead plasma and tissues when R-metalaxyl enantiomer was administered. In addition, the distribution of metalaxyl acid enantiomers in tissues is closely related to the parent compound metalaxyl, and S-metalaxyl acid was only observed in the kidney and slowly eliminated. The highest concentrations of both metalaxyl and metalaxyl acid were observed in the kidney, suggesting that kidney is the major site of metalaxyl metabolism in snakehead. Given that the highly active R-metalaxyl has a shorter half-life and does not undergo transformation between enantiomers in snakehead, it may be a better choice to use R-metalaxyl instead of racemic metalaxyl in clinical practice. The results are helpful to understand the detailed fate of metalaxyl enantiomers and should be considered in future aquaculture, environmental pollution risk and food safety evaluations.
Current practices and emerging possibilities for reducing the spread of oomycete pathogens in terrestrial and aquatic production systems in the European Union
2022, Fungal Biology Reviews
Citation Excerpt :
Since then, no equally effective method has been found to protect fish against the disease. Alternative chemical treatments, such as formalin, bronopol, hydrogen peroxide, copper sulphate, methylene blue, potassium permanganate and sodium chloride have been used in aquaculture but so far most have proven unsatisfactory, because their use is typically ineffective, expensive, labour intensive, lacks official approval or the treatments are otherwise dangerous (Oláh and Farkas, 1978; Bailey 1983a, 1983b). Formalin (37% aqueous solution of formaldehyde) reduces external bacterial or fungal infections, as opposed to internal infections against which it is not effective (Francis-Floyd and Pouder, 2018).
Diseases caused by oomycete pathogens are a global threat to forestry, agriculture and aquaculture. Because of their complex life cycles, characterised by dormant resting structures that enable their survival for years under hostile environmental conditions, reducing the spread of oomycetes is a challenging task. In this review, we present an overview of this challenge, starting from the need to understand the natural and anthropogenic dispersal pathways of these pathogens. Focusing on the European Union, we explore current legislation that forms a backbone for biosecurity protocols against the spread of oomycetes through trade and transport. We discuss the options for prevention, containment and long-term management of oomycetes in different production settings, emphasising the importance of prevention as the most cost-efficient strategy to reduce the spread of these pathogens. Finally, we highlight some of the new and emerging technologies and strategies as potential tools in the integrated pest management of animal and plant diseases caused by oomycetes. We emphasise the urgency of actions to halt the global spread of these pathogens.
Study on anionic and cationic dye adsorption behavior and mechanism of biofilm produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens DT
2022, Applied Surface Science
Citation Excerpt :
Malachite green (MG) is a typical cationic dye extensively used as food coloring, histochemical stain, and pH indicator. It is also used to treat fungal diseases in aquaculture and pisciculture [6,7]. However, MG is readily assimilated by fish, thereby adversely affecting the health of humans who consume the fish.
Biofilm produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens DT was reported to be able to remove crystal violet from water. However, there is no report on the ability of biofilm to remove other dyes. Here, we used methyl blue (MB; anionic) and malachite green (MG; cationic) as model dyes and investigated the behaviors and mechanisms of their adsorption by bacterial biofilm. Biofilm surface morphology, functional groups, and chemical constituents were characterized. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results demonstrated that the relevant adsorptive functional groups were CN bond/NH₃⁻ and CN bond/OP(C)O⁻ for MB and MG adsorption, respectively. Isothermic and kinetic models revealed that biofilm adsorbs MB heterogeneously via chemisorption and intraparticle diffusion. In contrast, biofilm adsorbs MG mainly by physical interaction. Biofilm adsorption capacities were substantially higher than those for most other adsorbents. Hence, biofilm is promising as an anionic and cationic dye adsorbent for wastewater treatment.
Sequence analysis and typing of Saprolegnia strains isolated from freshwater fish from Southern Chinese regions
2017, Aquaculture and Fisheries
Citation Excerpt :
The standard strain ATCC 200013 was purchased from American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). Separation and purification was performed as described by Oláh and Farkas with some modifications (Oláh & Farkas, 1978). The scrapings of isolates from the local lesions of diseased fish or their eggs were rinsed in 75% ethanol solution (chemically pure, Shanghai Anpel Scientific Instrument Co., Ltd., China) for 2–3 s and then dipped in sterile distilled water for 1–2 s before being placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA, Qingdao Hope Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) plates.
Saprolegniasis, caused by Saprolegnia infection, is one of the most common diseases in freshwater fish. Our study aimed to determine the epidemiological characteristics of saprolegniasis in Chinese regions of high incidence. Saprolegnia were isolated and identified by morphological and molecular methods targeting the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and building neighbor-joining (NJ) and maximum parsimony (MP) phylogenetic trees. The ITS sequences of eight isolated strains were compared with GenBank sequences and all strains fell into three clades: CLADE1 (02, LP, 04 and 14), CLADE2 (S1), and CLADE3 (CP, S2, L5 and the reference ATCC200013). Isolates 02 and LP shared 80% sequence similarity with S. diclina, S. longicaulis, S. ferax, S. mixta, and S. anomalies. Further, isolates 04 and 14 shared 80% similarity with S. bulbosa and S. oliviae. Finally, extremely high ITS sequence similarities were identified between isolates S1 and S. australis (100%); CP and S. hypogyna (96%); and S2, L5, ATCC200013 and S. salmonis (98%). This research provides insights into the identification, prevention and control of saprolegniasis pathogens and the potential development of effective drugs.
Occurrence of residues of the veterinary drug malachite green in eels caught downstream from municipal sewage treatment plants
2008, Chemosphere
Residues of malachite green (MG), a veterinary drug illegally used for the treatment of aquacultured fish, have been found in wild eels caught from surface waters downstream from the sewers of different municipal sewage treatment plants (STPs). MG and its metabolite leucomalachite green (LMG) were detected with total concentrations up to 0.765 μg kg⁻¹ fresh weight in the tissues of 25 out of 45 eels caught from different lakes, a river and a canal in Berlin, Germany. In all cases, the occurrence of the residues could directly be linked to the presence of discharges by municipal STPs into the receiving surface waters. MG is a multiple-use compound that is also used to color materials. Thus, it appears to be reasonable that the residues of MG found in the eel samples originate from such uses, e.g. by wash off from clothes or paper towels colored with MG. Additional loads from legal uses of MG as veterinary drug for the treatment of ornamental fish (private aquaria) are possible. The results obtained from this study are the first proof of background contaminations of a veterinary drug found in samples of fish not intentionally treated with such agents.
MG and LMG are regarded as potential genotoxic carcinogens making it impossible to establish a tolerable daily intake. A margin of exposure (MOE) approach was applied to evaluate the human health risk associated with the consumption of the eels investigated in this study. With a MOE of 3.4 million the chronic risk was classified as being very low. Nevertheless, due to their potential to act as genotoxic carcinogens, any oral exposure to residues of MG and LMG should be avoided. According to European Union law, zero tolerance applies to all residues of MG and LMG found in food for human consumption as MG is not registered for use as veterinary drug.

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Aquaculture

Abstract

References (19)

Disease problems of prawns in recirculation systems in the U.K.

Aquaculture

A study of the distribution of certain members of the Saprolegniales

Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.

On the pathogenecity of water moulds

Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.

Prophylactic treatment for control of fungus Saprolegnia parasitica on salmon eggs

Prog. Fish. Cult.

Malachite green oxalate used to control fungus on yellow pikeperch eggs in jar hatchery operations

Prog. Fish. Cult.

Aquatic Fungi of the Southern Part of Kiev Woodland District

Candidate dissertation

Data on the species composition and ecology of moulds causing fish saprolegniosis in Leningrad district

Occurrence of the saprolegnious fungi on the cultured eggs and fishes in Leningrad district

Vopr. Ozern. Hozyayst.

Cited by (42)

Toxicity of malachite green on plants and its phytoremediation: A review

Pharmacokinetics and residue elimination of metalaxyl enantiomers in snakehead (Channa argus)

Current practices and emerging possibilities for reducing the spread of oomycete pathogens in terrestrial and aquatic production systems in the European Union

Study on anionic and cationic dye adsorption behavior and mechanism of biofilm produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens DT

Sequence analysis and typing of Saprolegnia strains isolated from freshwater fish from Southern Chinese regions

Occurrence of residues of the veterinary drug malachite green in eels caught downstream from municipal sewage treatment plants