Experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits fed cholesterol-free diets: Part 10. Cocoa butter and palm oil

doi:10.1016/0021-9150(82)90192-7

Atherosclerosis

Volume 41, Issues 2–3, February 1982, Pages 279-284

https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9150(82)90192-7 Get rights and content

Abstract

Rabbits were fed a semipurified, cholesterol-free atherogenic diet containing 40% sucrose, 25% casein, 14% fat, 15% fiber, 5% salt mix and 1% vitamin mix. The fats were corn oil (CO), palm kernel oil (PO), cocoa butter (CB), and coconut oil (CNO). The rabbits were bled at 3, 6, and 9 months and killed at 9 months. Serum lipids of rabbits fed CO were unaffected. Serum cholesterol levels (mg/dl) at 9 months were: CO — 64; PO — 436; CB — 220; and CNO — 474. HDL-cholesterol (%) was: CO — 37; PO — 8.6; CB — 25.1; and CNO — 7.0. Average atherosclerosis (arch + thoracic/2) was: CO — 0.15; PO — 1.28; CB — 0.53; and CNO — 1.60. Cocoa butter (iodine value 33) is significantly less cholesterolemic and atherogenic than palm oil (iodine value 17) or coconut oil (iodine value 6). The difference between the atherogenic effects of cocoa butter and palm oil may lie in the fact that about half of the fatty acids of palm oil are C₁₆ or shorter, whereas 76% of the fatty acids of cocoa butter are C₁₈ or longer.

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These historical facts demonstrate that saturated fats were an abundant, key part of the ancient human diet. By the 1970s, many experimental studies in animal models were conducted with dietary coconut oil of unspecified origin, which reliably caused dramatic increases in hepatic and blood cholesterol in rodents; this was taken as evidence that dietary SFAs are inherently atherogenic (95,96). However, coconut oils of the era were usually highly processed and often fully hydrogenated.
The recommendation to limit dietary saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake has persisted despite mounting evidence to the contrary. Most recent meta-analyses of randomized trials and observational studies found no beneficial effects of reducing SFA intake on cardiovascular disease (CVD) and total mortality, and instead found protective effects against stroke. Although SFAs increase low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, in most individuals, this is not due to increasing levels of small, dense LDL particles, but rather larger LDL particles, which are much less strongly related to CVD risk. It is also apparent that the health effects of foods cannot be predicted by their content in any nutrient group without considering the overall macronutrient distribution. Whole-fat dairy, unprocessed meat, and dark chocolate are SFA-rich foods with a complex matrix that are not associated with increased risk of CVD. The totality of available evidence does not support further limiting the intake of such foods.
Glycerol derived process contaminants in refined coconut oil induce cholesterol synthesis in HepG2 cells
2019, Food and Chemical Toxicology
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Through the last quarter of the 20th century coconut oil was widely assumed to be inalterably atherogenic because of its highly reproducible influence on serum cholesterol in experimental animal models. Much but not all of the published work used hydrogenated coconut oil and with few documenting the sources of those oils (Kritchevsky et al., 1976, 1980, 1982, 2003). In mid-2017, the American Heart Association issued a Presidential Advisory against consumption of satuated fats based on a new meta-analysis of four cornerstone studies said to compare high saturated with high polyunsaturated fat intake (Sacks et al., 2017).
Despite its 50-year history, the conventional diet-heart hypothesis holding that dietary saturated fats raise serum cholesterol, and with it, cardiovascular risk, remains controversial. Harsh chemical and physical treatment generates process contaminants, and refined oils raise serum and tissue cholesterol in vivo independent of saturated fat content. We developed an in vitro bioassay for rapidly assessing the influence of oils on cholesterol metabolism in the human liver HepG2 cell line, and tested it using coconut oil (CO) of various stages of refinement. CO was dissolved with dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) surfactant, solvent evaporated, and emulsified into fat-free cell culture media. After 24 h treatment cellular cholesterol and triacylglycerol increased; HMG-CoA Reductase (HMGCR) increased and CYP7A1 (cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase) decreased with sequential processing steps, deacidification, bleaching, deodorization, while fatty acid profiles were not affected. Glycerol-derived process contaminants glycidyl esters and monochloropropandiol (MCPD) increased with processing. Addition of glycidyl or MCPD to virgin CO (VCO) had similar effects to processing, while addition of phenolic antioxidants to fully refined CO reduced HMGCR and increased CYP7A1. We conclude that harsh processing creates contaminants that raise cholesterol levels in vitro, consistent with a role as a contributing atherosclerotic factor.
Dietary cholesterol is less atherogenic than saturated fat in hamsters with low plasma nonHDL-cholesterol, but more atherogenic when plasma nonHDL-cholesterol is high
2003, Nutrition Research
The aims of the present study were to examine the characteristics of plasma low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and the development of early atherosclerosis at comparable plasma LDL levels in male Syrian Golden hamsters fed either a high saturated fat diet containing various levels of dietary coconut oil with out cholesterol (coconut oil diets) (n = 48) compared with those fed a high saturated fat diet containing cocoa butter and various levels of dietary cholesterol (0.05 –0.2% by weight) (cholesterol diets) (n = 48) for 10 weeks. In hamsters with similar LOW plasma very low and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (nonHDL-C) levels (<1.3 mmol/L), the hamsters fed the cholesterol diets had significantly less atherosclerosis, plasma HDL-C and triglyceride levels compared to the hamsters fed the coconut oil diets. However, at similar HIGH levels of plasma nonHDL-C (>1.9 mmol/L), the hamsters fed the cholesterol diets had significantly more atherosclerosis compared to the hamsters fed the coconut oil diets. The hamsters fed the cholesterol diets with similar HIGH plasma nonHDL-C had significantly higher hepatic cholesterol ester levels and larger LDL particle size compared to hamsters fed the coconut oil diets. Also, the hamsters fed the cholesterol diets with similar LOW plasma nonHDL-C had significantly higher LDL γ-tocopherol, which was associated with a slower rate of LDL oxidation (propagation phase) compared to hamsters fed the coconut oil diets. In summary, in animals with lower plasma nonHDL-C levels, the degree of early aortic atherosclerosis was less with cholesterol feeding; however at higher plasma nonHDL-C levels, increases in early aortic atherosclerosis were observed in cholesterol- compared to the coconut oil-fed hamsters.
Effect of replacing pork backfat with pre-emulsified olive oil on lipid fraction and sensory quality of Chorizo de Pamplona - a traditional Spanish fermented sausage
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Six treatments of Chorizo de Pamplona, traditional Spanish fermented sausage, were manufactured under usual commercial conditions by replacing 0, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30% of pork backfat by pre-emulsified olive oil with soy protein isolate. Sausages with 20–30% replacing level had higher (P<0.05) protein content than control as a result of the addition of soy protein isolate. The oleic acid increased (P<0.05) in sausages with 15–30% replacing level, and linoleic acid increased in sausages with 10–25%. Sausages with 10–25% of substitution had lower total SFA-stearic and higher (P<0.05) total MUFA, total PUFA, (MUFA+PUFA)/(SFA-stearic), and PUFA/(SFA-stearic). Cholesterol content showed reduction about 12–13% in sausages with 20–25% replacing level, and up to 22% in sausages with 30% replacing level. Sausages with 10–25% of substitution were acceptable from the sensorial point of view. The texture and colour instrumental measures were comparable with that of commercial products. No increments in hexanal content were observed. It is concluded that up to 25% of pork backfat can be replaced with pre-emulsified olive oil in the production of Chorizo de Pamplona fermented sausages. Higher replacing levels of pork backfat did not show nutritional advantages in relation to the fatty acid profile and were unacceptable due to considerable dripping of fat during ripening.
Experimental thrombosis I: Relation with fibrinogen and other haemostatic parameters
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Epidemiological studies have shown that the haemostatic parameters Fibrinogen (Fg), Factor VII (F VII), Factor VIII (F VIII), von Willebrand factor (vWF), Tissue Plasminogen Activator (t-PA), Plasminogen Activator Inhibitors (PAI) are risk factors/markers of ischemic cardiovascular disease. Ferritin (sFER) and Leukocytosis have also been implicated. In the present study we have followed the levels of fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor and thrombomodulin in relation to lipids, iron and the appearance of atherosclerotic lesions in New Zealand rabbits fed with a cholesterol enriched diet for a two-month period compared with a group of control rabbits. Hematocrit and white blood cell count (WBC) were measured in parallel. In hyperchlesterolemic rabbits the levels of fibrinogen and von Willebrand factor increased progressively, showing a positive correlation with the increasing cholesterol levels. There was an increase in soluble thrombomodulin beginning at the eighth week of study. In addition, these animals showed gross intimal atherosclerotic lesions in the whole extension of their aortas. Immunohistochemical studies showed the presence of fibrin(ogen) related antigen throughout the arterial wall and in the central portions of the atheromas. In the control group there was no formation of atherosclerotic plaques and all haemostatic, haematological and biochemical parameters were within the normal range. WBC and sFER levels were unaffected in both groups. Our results show that increased levels of fibrinogen and von Willebrand factor, known coronary risk factors, are strongly associated with the formation of atherosclerotic plaques in rabbits. The plaques contain a considerable amount of fibrinogen related antigen.
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^☆: This work was supported, in part, by a grant (HL-03299) and a Research Career Award (HL-00734) from the National Institutes of Health and grants-in-aid from the National Dairy Council and Hershey Foods.

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Research paperExperimental atherosclerosis in rabbits fed cholesterol-free diets: Part 10. Cocoa butter and palm oil☆

Abstract

J. Atheroscler. Res.

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis

J. Biol. Chem.

J. Atheroscler. Res.

Exp. Mol. Path.

J. Atheroscler. Res.

J. Atheroscler. Res.

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis

Experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits fed cholesterol-free diets, Part 5 (Comparison of peanut, corn, butter and coconut oils)

Exp. Mol. Path.

Cholesterol vehicle in experimental atherosclerosis, Part 7 (Influence of naturally occurring saturated fats)

Med. Pharmacol. Exp.

Research paper
Experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits fed cholesterol-free diets: Part 10. Cocoa butter and palm oil☆