The many faces of pan: Psychological and physiological differences among three types of panic attacks
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An apnea-hypothesis of anxiety generation: Novel, respiratory, and falsifiable
2022, Biological PsychologyThe Deakin/Graeff hypothesis: Focus on serotonergic inhibition of panic
2014, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral ReviewsCitation Excerpt :These reports, taken together with evidence showing high comorbidity between PD and a number of respiratory disorders (e.g., asthma, COPD; Simon and Fischmann, 2005), led many to postulate respiratory dysfunction as having a central role in PD. Ley's hyperventilation theory of panic (Ley, 1985) and later updated as the dyspnea/suffocation theory of panic (Ley, 1989), for example, proposed that acute hyperventilation triggered PAs (or a subtype of hyperventilatory PAs, see Ley, 1992) and that the dyspnea (air hunger, breathlessness) experienced during the PA gave rise to the intense feelings of fear often accompanying the attack. In contrast, Klein's false suffocation alarm theory (1993) compellingly argued the hyperventilation accompanying panic and the chronic hyperventilation commonly observed in PD patients was caused by the dysfunction of a putative suffocation alarm system, which rendered the system hypersensitive to physiological changes predicting suffocation, including changes in arteriole partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) or lactate levels, and when triggered resulted in a PA.
Hyperventilation in panic disorder and asthma: Empirical evidence and clinical strategies
2010, International Journal of PsychophysiologyRespiratory and non-respiratory panic disorder subtypes: Clinical and quality of life comparisons
2009, Revista Portuguesa de PneumologiaSocial anxiety symptoms uniquely predict fear responding to 35% CO<inf>2</inf> challenge
2008, Journal of Psychiatric ResearchCitation Excerpt :Another limitation was the discordance in predictions between subjective and physiological responding to the challenge. In this regard, it is worth noting that patients with anxiety disorders do not consistently show dramatic physiological changes during panic attacks (Ley, 1992) or in response to the CO2 challenge (Schmidt et al., 2002). In addition, there appear to be stable individual differences in the level of concordance or discordance between subjective anxiety and physiological reactivity (Forsyth et al., 2000; Schmidt et al., 2002) such that some individuals, but not others, will consistently evidence subjective or physiological reactivity in response to a CO2 challenge.