Modeling annual parameters of clear-sky land surface temperature variations and evaluating the impact of cloud cover using time series of Landsat TIR data
Introduction
Land surface temperature (LST) and its spatial–temporal variations are vital in studies of hydrological cycles, long-term climatological changes, and land–atmosphere energy balances (Voogt & Oke, 2003). In the process of urbanization, natural landscapes are transformed into a series of built-up lands, such as buildings, roads, driveway, sidewalk, and parking lots (Xian & Crane, 2006). LST is a key component to understand the variants within this transformation. The variations of LST in urban areas have a significant impact on the local climate, as it modifies the air temperature of the lower boundary of urban atmosphere and impacts surface energy exchange and urban climate formation, and interacts with human disturbances (Voogt and Oke, 2003, Weng, 2009, Xian and Crane, 2006). Increase in the area of urban areas, especially densely built-up land, changed the land surface energy balance and brought about higher LST values in the urban than in the surrounding rural areas, contributing to the urban heat island (UHI) effect (Voogt & Oke, 2003). LST variations are found to be associated with land use and land cover (LULC) characteristics, resulting in strong heterogeneity within the urban areas. Based on linear spectral mixture analysis, Weng, Lu, and Schubring (2004) found that LST possessed a slightly stronger negative relationship with vegetation fraction than with NDVI. In addition, Yuan and Bauer (2007) demonstrated a positive linear relationship of LST with percent impervious areas. Zhang, Zhong, Feng, and Wang (2009) suggested that urban LST was closely related with the spatial distribution of vegetation patches, as well as their characteristics. The study by Callejas et al. (2011) showed that the highest variability of LST was detected in bare soils and urbanized areas. In the urban areas, residential land cover was relatively cooler than the central business district, yielding the difference in LST as high as 15 °C (Quattrochl et al., 2000). Therefore, finer spatial resolution remote sensing data are essential in estimating urban thermal patterns.
Currently, only a few space-borne sensors can deliver medium resolution thermal infrared (TIR) data required by the need to address urban LST heterogeneity and to assess UHI effect (Weng, 2009). However, satellite TIR sensors that are characterized by a relatively high spatial resolution, such as Landsat TM, ETM +, and ASTER, typically have a coarser temporal resolution. Given the long repeat-cycle of these satellites, their TIR data are not readily useful for UHI monitoring. Surface UHI is not only a phenomenon of high spatial variability, but also of high temporal variability. Therefore, researchers have also utilized data from those TIR sensors with coarse spatial but high temporal resolution from geostationary platforms (sub-hourly imagery at 3–10 km resolution), such as Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) and Meteosat Second Generation (MSG), for the UHI studies. Gottsche and Olesen (2001) utilized the GOES TIR data with a diurnal temperature cycle (DTC) model to describe thermal behavior of land surface, and demonstrated that the model was effective to characterize surface properties at a spatial resolution of 5 km. Realizing the low spatial resolution of GEOS LST data, Inamdar, French, Hook, Vaughan, and Luckett (2008) presented an approach to employ MODIS TIR data to disaggregate GOES data into half-hourly LST values at 1 km resolution. Gottsche and Olesen (2009) modified their DTC model to account for atmospheric attenuation of solar irradiation caused by the presence of aerosols, dusts, and clouds. Zaksek and Ostir (2012) utilized the principal component and regression analyses to downscale SEVIRI LST over central Europe to 1 km resolution per 15 min for the diurnal cycle analysis of UHI. In addition to DTC analysis, Bechtel (2012) found that modeling annual temperature cycle (ATC) was also feasible with Landsat data archive to extract the mean annual surface temperature and the yearly amplitude of surface temperature. His study in the city of Hamburg, northern Germany, collected 35 TIR images from Landsat-5 and -7, and yielded an estimation accuracy approximating 1 K. These studies provide important insights into how time series of TIR data may be utilized to examine the temporal variability of UHI without looking into the issue of urban heterogeneity in LST.
In the early studies of urban LST variations, a problem encountered by many researchers, especially those from developing countries, was the lack of remotely sensed TIR data; however, at present, the problem has been transformed into how to utilize the large amount of imagery data archive such as those from Landsat. Various data mining methods have been adopted to analyze the LST variability with time series of imagery and/or over a long time period. Rajasekar and Weng (2009) employed a Gaussian process model to explore the evolvement of UHI magnitude over space and time in Indianapolis based on an analysis of 94 images (45 for day and 49 for night). Keramitsoglou, Kiranoudis, Ceriola, Weng, and Rajasekar (2011) proposed an object-based image analysis method for analysis of MODIS LST data to characterize urban thermal patterns in the Greater Athens area, Greece. A total of 3041 images were used to reveal the magnitude, spatial extent, and maxima of UHI. Although the use of data mining methods has, so far, been limited to satellite systems such as MODIS TIR data, they may also be suitable for high spatial resolution TIR image or for high temporal resolution image data. In this research, we developed an approach to monitor UHI and to analyze LST variation in Los Angeles using time series of Landsat-5 TIR data and a data mining method. Specific objectives of the research are three fold. The first was to estimate annual temperature cycle parameters so as to analyze the annual and seasonal characteristics of LST variability over a decade between 2000 and 2010. Secondly, with the long-term Landsat data archive, this research attempted to evaluate the effect of cloud cover on the modeling of LST variations. The majority of previous UHI studies relied on clear-sky satellite observations to derive LST. The LST observed during clear-sky conditions, however, can be quite different from that experienced under cloudy conditions. Finally, the relationship between the derived LST parameters and selected biophysical indexes were analyzed to understand better the spatio-temporal variation of LST data.
Section snippets
Study area
The study area covers nearly the whole Los Angeles County, California, except for two offshore islands, the Santa Catalina Island and the San Clemente Island, and a small portion of the southern region along the coast, which is not covered by selected Landsat scene (path 41/row 36). According to the US Census 2010, Los Angeles County has a population of 9,818,605, being the most populous county in the nation. This area encompasses geographically diverse regions ranging from hilly mountains,
LST computation
Sobrino, Jimenez-Munoz, and Paolini (2004) examined three different single-channel methods for LST retrieval: the radiative transfer equation (RTE) using in situ radiosounding data; the mono-window algorithm (Qin et al., 2001); and the single-channel algorithm (Jiménez-Muñoz & Sobrino, 2003). The error sources that impact the accuracy of LST estimation with the radiative transfer equation may come from atmospheric correction, noise of the sensor, land surface emissivity, aerosols and other
Annual and seasonal temperature dynamics
Three parameters of the annual cycle, i.e., MAST, YAST, and the phase shift (theta) were optimized from LST measurements of the subset 115 images. It should be noted that initial cloud cover of less than 30% was used for acquisition of image scenes, but cloud cover was found to cover up to 65% of the study area. Fig. 3 illustrates LST observations from the remotely sensed data and the ATC fitted LST for a chosen pixel in the barren land area, with the residuals in Panel B. These deviations may
Discussions and conclusions
The study employed an ATC model to analyze the temporal variation of LSTs, which were derived from time series of Landsat TIR data in Los Angeles from 2000 to 2010. The LST data series was decomposed into a modified Fourier series, which allowed dividing each LST measurement into a long-term LST climatology (for largely cloud free conditions) and a day-specific anomaly, which can be explained by the residuals. The three parameters: MAST, YAST, and the phase shift, were then optimized using the
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