3D-mapping optimization of embodied energy of transportation

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.10.010Get rights and content

Abstract

The recent development of Google Earth, an information service that provides imagery and three-dimensional data depicting the entire Earth, provides an opportunity to use a new method of navigating information to save energy in the real world. Google Earth uses Keyhole Markup Language (KML) for modeling and storing geographic features and information for display in the Google Earth Client. This paper will analyze the potential of this novel and free geographic mapping service to reduce embodied energy of transportation in two ways. First, at the consumer level, Google Earth will be studied to map the automobile route that uses the least fuel and maintains vehicle velocities at their individual maximum fuel efficiency. The same analysis for single destination trips could be used to optimize fleet vehicle routes such as garbage or recycling collection trucks. The secondary benefit of ecological education will also be explored. Fuel used could be converted into monetary units based on the current price of gas, pollution/greenhouse gas emissions, or ecological footprints to improve driving habits. Secondly, KML overlays will be analyzed for use of determining: (i) raw material and products availability as a function of location, and (ii) modes of transportation as a function of emissions. These overlays would enable manufacturers access to an easily navigable method to optimize the life cycle of their products by minimizing embodied energy of transportation. The most efficient transportation methods and travel routes could be calculated. This same tool would be useful for architects to obtain Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design rating points for the green design of buildings. Overall, the analysis completed finds that the flexibility and visual display of quantitative information made available by Google Earth could have a significant impact at conserving fuel resources by reducing the embodied energy of transportation on a global scale.

Introduction

Over 80% of our global energy needs are met by the combustion of fossil fuels (Ristinen and Kraushaar, 1999) and by far the most important type of energy source for the functioning of our global economy is petroleum (Yergin, 1992). During the past 40 years, the number of newly found oil reserves has been slowly diminishing (Bentley, 2002). Some energy analysts warn that globally, society is approaching “peak oil”, where the maximum long-term rate of extraction and depletion of conventional petroleum is reached (although the exact time of peak oil is hotly debated). There are still billions of barrels of oil left underground, and as the price of oil climbs, when supply cannot meet demand, other vast sources of petroleum will become economically exploitable (e.g. Alberta has about 178 billion barrels of proven oil reserves in oil sands (National Energy Board, 2005)). Unfortunately, this does not present a solution, because the emissions from burning these fuels would represent an unacceptable risk to the vitality of the earth because of global climate destabilization and thermal forcing (Hansen et al., 2000, Hoffert et al., 2002, Rose, 1979, Thomas et al., 2004). It is now clear that there needs to be more attention paid to how the fossil fuels are being used, particularly for transportation and more rapid adoption of methods to reduce fossil fuel combustion.

The recent development of Google Earth, a geographical information service that provides satellite imagery and three-dimensional (3D) data depicting the entire planet, creates an opportunity to reduce energy consumption for transportation. This paper will explore the viability of this novel and free geographic mapping service to reduce embodied energy of transportation. The embodied energy of transportation refers to the transportation component of the embodied energy, where embodied energy is the quantity of energy required to manufacture and supply to the point of use of a product, material or service. At the consumer level, Google Earth could be used to map the automobile route that uses the least fuel between two locations. It can also be used to optimize fleet vehicle routes in terms of energy and emissions for vehicles such as mail carriers, garbage or recycling collection trucks. This information for transportation energy optimization will help not only conserve fuel, but also can incorporate ecological education features geared toward changing behaviors in vehicle users. Additionally, overlays in Google Earth could be developed first nationally and then on a planet-wide basis of: (i) raw material and product availability as a function of location and (ii) modes of transportation as a function of emissions. These overlays would enable manufacturers to minimize the life cycle energy costs of their finished products by access to an easily navigable method to determine embodied energy of transportation for a given product or raw material. This same information could be utilized to develop symbiosis in industrial ecologies. Finally, this information would also be useful for architects trying to reduce the embodied energy in their designs of green buildings.

Section snippets

Background

Physical energy use and resultant emissions from combustion of fossil fuels is steadily becoming of greater importance to decision makers at both macro and micro levels. This is largely driven by the consensus among the 2004 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the 1993 World Energy Council's Global Energy Scenarios to 2050, that if current trends continue in climate destabilization, our Earth will reach a point of no return (Hoffert et al., 2002). Global climate destabilization

Material studied: Google Earth as an embodied energy of transportation tool

Google Earth utilizes Keyhole Markup Language (KML), an Extensible Markup Language (XML) grammar and file format for modeling and storing geographic features, such as points, lines, images and polygons for display in the Google Earth Client. XML is a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) initiative that allows information and services to be encoded with meaningful structure and semantics that both humans and computers can comprehend. Google Earth contains satellite images of the entire planet as well

Technique 1: route optimization

Currently the use of internet mapping software is growing in popularity. Sites such as http://www.maps.google.com/, http://www.maps.yahoo.com/dd, http://www.mapquest.com/, etc. offer driving directions free of charge for individuals planning trips in the U.S. and abroad. Users type in their current location and destination addresses and a map is formulated with a route and directions for travel. This information is also available for travel software packages and global positioning systems (GPS)

Route and vehicle velocity optimization

In addition to determining the optimal route, using the Google Earth program in vehicles in real time would enable drivers to chart a course that maintains their vehicle at its individual maximum fuel efficiency speed. The operating efficiency of modern automobiles is complex. For a standard automobile powered with an internal combustion engine, the efficiency of the engine improves as it accelerates from rest (0 km/h), because it uses a fixed amount of fuel to power itself and the accessories,

Technique 2: minimization of the embodied energy of transportation of products

To determine a product's environmental impact, it is necessary to perform a comprehensive life cycle analysis (LCA). LCA quantifies how much energy and raw materials are used and how much (solid, liquid, and gaseous) waste is generated at each stage of a product's life (Ayres, 1995, Pearce and Lau, 2002). Ideally, an LCA would include quantification of material and energy needed for: raw material extraction, manufacturing of all components, use requirements, generation (if any), disposal or

Specific example: shipment of pineapples from Hawaii to Clarion, Pennsylvania

To illustrate how this system would function, the transportation of 1 tonnes of pineapples was simulated from Hawaii, where almost all commercially grown pineapples that appear in the U.S. originate (USDA, 2003). The most and least energy efficient direct routes and modes of transportation were found using Google Earth and can be seen in Fig. 4. Fuel consumption and emissions varies by transportation mode. No consistent fuel efficiency standards could be found because of the wide variation in

Discussion

All of the above suggestions for functionality of the Google Earth Transportation Optimization Tool would reduce energy use. The quantitative savings for each of the suggestions is challenging to predict because the methods are based on compliance of decision makers to utilize specific routes, products, or modes of transportation with reduced embodied energy. Some more environmentally conscious drivers might alter their driving habits to closely maintain their vehicles optimal velocity, while

Conclusions

This paper completed an analysis of Google Earth, an information service that provides imagery and 3D data depicting the entire Earth, as a novel method of navigating information to conserve travel-related fuels. First, this paper showed that at the individual driver level, Google Earth could be used to map the route that uses the least fuel between two locations and enable drivers to chart a course that maintains their vehicle at its individual maximum fuel efficiency velocity. This

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank our anonymous reviewers who have provided helpful comments on the refinement of this paper.

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