Materials Today
Short CommunicationA chain is as strong as its weakest link – Stability study of MAPbI3 under light and temperature
Graphical abstract
Introduction
In 1839, Gustav Rose discovered CaTiO3 and named it “perovskite” after the mineralogist L. A. Perovski [1]. Later, this mineral became the namesake for any ABX3 structure. In 2009, Kojima et al. [2] demonstrated that organic–inorganic perovskites could be used in solar cells. For these solar cells the different sites can be replaced or mixed with A being Cs+, methylammonium (MA) CH3NH3+, or formamidinium (FA) CH3(NH2)2+; B being Pb2+, or Sn2+; and X being Cl−, Br−, or I− [3], [4], [5]. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have shown outstanding progress with a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 3.8% in 2009 to a certified efficiency of 23.3% in 2018 [2], [6]. The first and still one of the most adopted perovskites is MAPbI3 because of its relative simple preparation from only two components, i.e. MAI and PbI2 dissolved in DMSO. This reduces potential error sources from contaminated chemicals or accidentally misadjusted cation ratios. For example, for the high-performance Rb5(Cs5(MA17FA83)95)95Pb(I83Br17)3 perovskite (from here on referred to as RbCsMAFA), requires six components, PbI2, PbBr, FAI, MABr, CsI, and RbI dissolved in DMF and DMSO [7]. Also, MAPbI3 has a beneficially red-shifted bandgap at 1.55 eV compared to 1.62 eV for RbCsMAFA [3]. Moreover, high PCE values of >20% were achieved with MAPbI3 [8], [9].
Unfortunately, even though the PCEs are highly attractive, MAPbI3, as all perovskites, suffer from severe long-term instability especially compared to silicon which is reported to have a mean degradation of 0.8% (relative) per year [10]. Significant efforts were made recently toward stability in PSCs. Looking at the main components for typical perovskite compositions, i.e. Cs, FA, MA, Pb, I, Br, it is especially the organic components MA and FA that are susceptible to light and heat. From earlier studies, FA was reported as thermally more stable than MA [11], [12], [13]. Thus, one way to improve stability under light and heat is to simply remove MA as previously suggested [11], [13], [15], [18], [19]. However, this appears to be challenging, and almost all highest efficient PSCs still use small amounts of MA (∼5% to 17%) as shown in Table 1. For example, MA is present in the double cation mixture (i.e. MA, FA, Pb, Br and I, referred to as MAFA), the triple cation mixture (i.e. Cs5(MA17FA83)95Pb(I83Br17)3, referred to as CsMAFA), and RbCsMAFA with efficiencies at 22.85%, 21.1%, and 21.6%, respectively [7], [20], [21]. Very recently, during the revision of this work, some of the highest efficiency for non-MA compositions, RbCsFAPbI3 and CsFA, were reported at 20.35% and 21.1% (both stabilized), respectively [17], [18]. Thus, at this stage, the presence of MA still correlates with the currently highest power outputs. This was recently connected to the smaller ionic radius of MA which leads to a smaller unit cell compared to pure FA resulting in a stabilized cubic perovskite phase which has better photovoltaic parameters [22]. Therefore, degradation behavior of full MA devices is crucial to understand and to quantify the long-term degradation incurred specifically by MA in mixtures. Only after a full study of MAPbI3, it is possible to determine at which timescales MA is unstable and which role it can play in future compositions.
Several papers have shown that by changing the often used architecture with 2,2′,7,7′-tetrakis(N, N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine)-9,9′-spirobi-fluorene (spiro-OMeTAD) as hole transporting material (HTM) and TiO2 as electron transport material, can improve the stability of PSCs significantly [8], [23], [24], [25]. Especially the usage of polymeric HTMs has proven a very fruitful strategy to prevent detrimental metal migration into the perovskite layer [7], [26], [27]. It is the systematic reduction of these highly detrimental degradation pathways that enabled more stable device architectures. With this, a reevaluation on the long-term stability behavior at temperatures of 50 ± 10 °C and 60 ± 5 °C (as defined by the IEC 61215 protocol) of MA can be conducted [28]. Therefore, to study the degradation process in MAPbI3 devices, we use a mesoporous structure with poly-triarylamine (PTAA) as an HTM, which has been shown to result in stable devices for over 500 h even at high temperatures of 85 °C [7].
We measure MAPbI3 devices at −10, 50, 65, and 95 °C under constant illumination over 500 h. The PSCs retained 87%, 100%, 90%, and 85% of their initial PCE, respectively. Remarkably, at 20 °C, the MAPbI3 device retained its initial efficiency after 1000 h of aging. This aging study provides crucial clues to what extent MAPbI3 and MA-containing devices can be long-term stable even at higher temperatures. Furthermore, we show that maximum power point (MPP) tracking and additional layers on top of the perovskite significantly stabilize PSCs explaining some of the differences compared to previous thin-film studies [14], [16], [29]. Hence, while the removal of MA is a preferred industry choice in terms of long-term risk factors, a more rigorous testing is required that may unveil other (non-MA related), severe degradation pathways that are currently underappreciated.
Section snippets
Results and discussion
We studied the influence of elevated temperatures on MAPbI3 films. In Fig. 1a, we show black films of MAPbI3 and CsMAFA (left side). The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern in Fig. 1b shows peaks at 14° and 28°, corresponding to (110) and (220) of the tetragonal perovskite phase. The films are then heated at 150 °C on a hotplate in a nitrogen glove box. After two hours the MAPbI3 films turned yellow (see Fig. 1a right side) in contrast to CsMAFA, which stayed black and only turned yellow after
Discussion
First, the initial part of the stability tests up to 50 h in Fig. 2b is discussed. The PCE of the 65 and 95 °C aging trace increases while the 50 °C trace showed only a small increase as seen in Fig. 2b. It is consistent with Bush et al. and Sheikh et al. who also observed an efficiency increase after heating [12], [33]. The open-circuit voltage (Voc) stayed relatively constant for all temperatures, while the short-circuit current density (Jsc) and FF increased both for 65 and 95 °C as shown in
Conclusions
We studied MAPbI3 devices at −10, 50, and 65 °C under constant illumination over 500 h which retained 87%, 100%, and 90% of their original efficiency. Remarkably the degradation of the device aged at −10 °C was reversible. At 20 °C, the device retained 100% after 1000 h of aging which is one of the highest stability values reported in literature. The device, heated at nearly 100 °C, retained 85% of its initial PCE after 500 h of aging under constant illumination, which is one of the best
Substrate preparation, TiO2 compact layer, and Li-doped mesoporous TiO2
Nippon Sheet Glass 10 Ω/cm2 was etched with a 4% HCl-solution, then cleaned by sonication in 2% Hellmanex water solution for 15 min. After rinsing with deionized water, the step was repeated with ethanol and acetone solution. Then substrates were further cleaned with UV ozone treatment for 15 min. A precursor solution of 0.4 ml of acetylacetone and 0.6 ml of titanium diisopropoxide bis(acetylacetonate) stock solution (75% in 2-propanol) is diluted in 9 mL of ethanol. The precursor solution is
Acknowledgments
P. H. thanks the PROMOS scholarship for their support. M. S. acknowledges support from the co-funded Marie Skłodowska Curie fellowship, H2020 Grant agreement no. 665667. Furthermore, the authors thank S. Collavini for help with the device preparation. The authors thank Dr. A. Uhl for fruitful input.
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2023, Renewable and Sustainable Energy ReviewsCitation Excerpt :Studies also continue to be performed to distinguish between the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that affect the device stability. Crucial works include the two-fold investigations of performance degradation and their remediation that can be instigated by exposure to 1) visible or ultraviolet light triggering perovskite decomposition, defect formation, and increased non-radiative recombination rates [254–258], dissociation of organic cations [257,259,260], desorption of surface adsorbed oxygen molecules [257], pronounced ion and defect migration [261–264] or phase segregation [265]; 2) elevated ambient temperatures leading to phase transitions [266–270]; 3) contamination by oxygen and moisture inducing the formation of traps or mobile charge barriers [271–273], or field-mediated decomposition [274]; and 4) external biasing resulting in phase segregation, phase transition, or ion or defect migration, or perovskite decomposition [265,275–279]. Taken together, the main research efforts employed in the promotion of the industrialization of organic polymer or perovskite solar cells can be summarized into four categories as follows: (1) the ability to have large-area control of thin film crystallization; (2) robust encapsulation designs; (3) strategies encompassing the identification of failure modes to guarantee the long-term stability and reliability of the devices; and (4) the advancement of environmentally friendly production processes compatible with industrial-scale manufacturing.