Elsevier

Journal of School Psychology

Volume 69, August 2018, Pages 154-168
Journal of School Psychology

Associations among teachers' depressive symptoms and students' classroom instructional experiences in third grade

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.05.002Get rights and content

Highlights

  • We examined relations among teachers' depressive symptoms and students' experiences.

  • Eight experiences were investigated reflecting varying levels of teacher effort.

  • More symptoms related to less instruction applied by the teacher to the whole class.

  • More symptoms related to less time in planning/organizing instruction.

Abstract

Recent studies have established connections among teachers' mental health and student outcomes, however there is limited understanding of how these teacher characteristics manifest in the classroom to affect students. The present study informed this gap by examining the associations among third grade teachers' (N = 32) self-reported symptoms of clinical depression and their students' (N = 326) classroom instructional experiences. Eight student experiences described by the Individualizing Student Instruction framework were investigated, including academic instruction facilitated by the teacher in various student groupings, students' independent and group work, teachers' planning/organizing instruction, and students' time off-task and in transitions. Multilevel modeling revealed negative associations between teachers' depressive symptoms and (a) teacher-facilitated academic instruction provided to the whole class and (b) teachers' planning/organizing instruction. Results suggest that teachers experiencing more symptoms may under-utilize instructional approaches that require more effort on their part. We discussed the implications of our findings for students' academic and social-emotional learning, and the potential benefits of incorporating mental health support components into teacher training and professional development aimed at improving instructional practices.

Introduction

Recent work has identified teachers' mental health as an important contributor to classroom processes and student outcomes (Roberts, LoCasale-Crouch, Hamre, & DeCoster, 2016; Sandilos et al., 2015). Teachers' depressive symptoms, in particular, have been explored in relation to classroom and student factors: McLean and Connor (2015) found that third-grade teachers who reported more depressive symptoms were more likely to have lower-quality classrooms (operationalized as a combination of classroom organization, instruction, and teacher management of/responsiveness to students). This association between teachers' depressive symptoms and classroom quality, in addition to research documenting links between classroom quality and students' classroom instructional experiences (Connor et al., 2014; Kane & Staiger, 2012; McLean, Sparapani, Toste, & Connor, 2016; Pianta, Paro, & Hamre, 2007) suggests that teachers' depressive symptoms might also influence the types and amounts of instruction that students experience in the classroom. Although the field has begun to identify associations among teachers' depressive symptoms and globally-observed aspects of the classroom environment (McLean & Connor, 2015; Roberts et al., 2016; Sandilos et al., 2015), little is known about the extent to which teachers' depressive symptoms influence individual students' exposures to various types of instruction within the classroom. Given the documented links between the instruction students receive and their developmental outcomes (Connor et al., 2010; McLean et al., 2016), such investigation may provide insight into how exactly teachers' mental health characteristics operate in the classroom to affect students.

We drew on the Bio-Ecological Model of Human Development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) to frame this investigation. The Bio-Ecological Model highlights the importance of the proximal developmental contexts (in this case, the classroom) that children experience in contributing to their development. Additionally, this model illustrates the potential for the individual characteristics participants bring into a context (e.g., teachers' depressive symptoms) to contribute to the nature of that system's influence on others (e.g., the types and amounts of instruction students experience). Student-level classroom observation methods show promise in elucidating these potential relations as they portray classroom experiences from the vantage point of students in contrast to the classroom-level features captured by global observation methods. This is especially relevant in that students within the same classroom and between classrooms can have vastly different instructional experiences (Connor, Piasta, et al., 2009). However, very few studies to date have examined the influences of teachers' depressive symptoms on students' classroom experiences utilizing student-level observation methods. Importantly, one such investigation was recently undertaken which revealed relations among teachers' mental health characteristics and the academic feedback their students received (McLean & Connor, 2017). The McLean and Connor study provides a foundation upon which the present study expands, as we investigate how teachers' depressive symptoms relate to a wider range of instructional experiences.

The present study sought to address current gaps in the field by utilizing a student-level observational system to investigate whether the students of teachers reporting more depressive symptoms had systematically different classroom instructional experiences compared to students in classrooms led by teachers with fewer symptoms. We investigated students' experiences in literacy instruction exclusively because, according to a recent large-scale report, U.S. third-graders spend a larger percentage of time in literacy instruction than they do in any other subject (Hoyer & Sparks, 2017). This proportionately large amount of exposure to literacy instruction, considered alongside the potential for depressive symptoms to influence the nature of a teachers' interactions with students during classroom instruction (McLean & Connor, 2017), illustrates the value of investigating teachers' depressive symptoms within this domain of instruction. We anticipate results of this effort will inform teacher training and professional development programs and policies that aim to improve teachers' instructional practices, particularly in the context of literacy.

Clinical depression, also known as Major Depressive Disorder, is recognized by the DSM-V as a mental disorder that has the potential to affect all aspects of a person's life including their professional performance. In general, this disorder is associated with a dampening of positive affect, energy, and motivation, with symptoms including prolonged feelings of fatigue and decreases in concentration, motivation, and engagement with others (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Even the presence of depressive symptoms at non-clinical levels can negatively affect an individual, and is one of the strongest predictors of later major depressive episodes and other mental-health related struggles (Allen, Chango, Szwedo, & Schad, 2014; Horwath, Johnson, Klerman, & Weissman, 1994). Recent work has highlighted the importance of conducting mental health research in teacher populations: Whitaker, Becker, Herman, and Gooze (2013) observed that reports of poor mental health were more prevalent among early childhood teachers relative to a comparable national sample, with 24% of teachers classified as at-risk for clinical depression compared to 18% in the general population. Given that teaching is one of the most stressful occupations (Johnson et al., 2005; Travers, 2001), it could be that the unique demands of the teaching profession leave its practitioners more prone to experiencing negative mental health symptoms.

We assessed a constellation of symptoms indicative of clinical depression utilizing an established measure of depression risk. Investigations into the contributions of depressive symptoms to teachers' classroom practices have revealed negative associations between symptoms (such as pervasive stress and feelings of burnout) and a teacher's ability to positively engage with, and provide high-quality instruction to, their students (Chang, 2009; Darr & Johns, 2008; McLean & Connor, 2017; Sandilos et al., 2015). For example, McLean and Connor (2017) recently reported that teachers who reported more depressive symptoms provided positive academic feedback less frequently to their students. In addition, depressive symptoms have been found to be negatively associated with teachers' monitoring and management of student behavior (Aloe, Amo, & Shanahan, 2014; Li Grining et al., 2010; Raver et al., 2008). Sandilos et al. (2015) further reported that preschool teachers' depressive symptoms were negatively associated with the observed quality of classroom-level instructional support and organization (elements of more general classroom quality). Lastly, Hamre and Pianta (2004) found that non-familial caregivers (i.e., preschool teachers and daycare workers) who reported more depressive symptoms were more withdrawn in their interactions with young children. Considering these findings along with the well-established negative effects of depressive symptoms on one's energy, motivation, and likeliness of engaging with others (APA, 2013) we hypothesized that teachers' depressive symptoms would influence the types of teacher-initiated and teacher-monitored instructional experiences their students have in the classroom.

Students' instructional experiences in the classroom are robust correlates of achievement, highlighting the value of investigations which aim to identify novel predictors of those instructional experiences. Foundational associations between instructional experiences and achievement were highlighted in the seminal process-product research of the 1970s. Syntheses from this large body of research pinpointed multiple influential instructional experiences, including active teaching (i.e., instruction provided directly by the teacher), classroom organization and management (e.g., good preparation of learning materials and activities, efficient transitions), cooperative learning (e.g., working in small groups or pairs), and time on-task (Brophy & Good, 1986; Brophy, 2006). Recent research has replicated and extended such findings. For example, instructional experiences including academic instruction facilitated by the teacher, efficient transitions between learning opportunities, and less time off-task have been linked to students' literacy achievement (Connor, Morrison, et al., 2009; Connor et al., 2010, Connor et al., 2013; McLean et al., 2016) and self-regulation (Connor et al., 2010).

Students' classroom instructional experiences were measured in the present study using the Individualizing Student Instruction framework (ISI; Connor et al., 2007). The ISI framework has been shown to be a valid and predictive tool for observing classroom instruction and making inferences about how types of instruction relate to student outcomes (Connor, Morrison, et al., 2009). Multiple studies have established connections among ISI-defined instructional experiences and well-validated measures of classroom quality (again operationalized as a combination of instruction, organization, and management of/responsiveness to students; Connor et al., 2014). Specifically, academic instruction provided directly by the teacher has found to be indicative of higher classroom quality (Connor et al., 2014). In addition, students' time in transitions and engaged in off-task behavior have been associated with classroom quality, with less student time off-task and decreasing time in transitions across the year indicative of higher-quality classrooms (McLean et al., 2016). Types of instruction defined by the ISI framework have also consistently been found to relate to student outcomes, including literacy achievement (Connor, Morrison, et al., 2009; Connor et al., 2010, Connor et al., 2013; McLean et al., 2016) and self-regulation (Connor et al., 2010). In the present study, we examined eight classroom instructional experiences captured by the ISI framework: Academic instruction provided by the teacher in whole class, small-group, and individual student groupings (three experiences), academic instruction managed by students independently in either small-group or individual student groupings (two experiences), planning/organizing instruction (i.e., instruction intended to support upcoming learning activities such as providing directions), students' time off-task, and students' time in transitions.

We anticipated that student's time spent in these instructional experiences would vary as a function of their teachers' depressive symptoms because we conceptualized these experiences as requiring varying levels of exertion from the teacher. Foundational work has described the variations in effort, engagement, and cognitive load required of teachers across different practices (Brophy & Good, 1986), and more recent work has identified more specifically that practices requiring teachers to think in real time and simultaneously monitor multiple aspects of the classroom environment are particularly demanding (Downer, Jamil, Maier, & Pianta, 2012). Indeed, this need to attend to the needs and behaviors of an entire classroom of students while also remembering and implementing a lesson plan has been reported by teachers themselves as overwhelming (Carre, 1993; Wideen, Mayer-Smith, & Moon, 1998). Feldon (2007) described in detail the important role that cognitive load plays in driving teacher practice and performance in the classroom, and others have similarly described how varying levels of cognitive load required of individuals are primary determinants of performance across multiple contexts, both professional and personal (Goldinger, Kleider, Azuma & Beike, 2003; Sweller, van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). Building on these foundational works, we conceptualized academic instruction provided directly by the teacher as requiring more teacher exertion, or cognitive load, compared to academic instruction where students are managing themselves without the direct involvement of the teacher (e.g., worksheets, silent reading). As such, we anticipated that students of teachers experiencing more depressive symptoms would experience less teacher-facilitated academic instruction and, alternately, more academic instruction where they are expected to work independently. We further anticipated that different groupings of students (whole-class, small-group, individual) may also represent different amounts of effort required of the teacher. For academic instruction provided directly by the teacher, we posited that a whole-class grouping might require the most teacher effort as the teacher must deliver academic information while simultaneously monitoring and managing the behavior of a large group of students. As such, we anticipated that the students of teachers with more depressive symptoms would experience less teacher-facilitated academic instruction in a whole-group setting and more teacher-facilitated academic instruction in small-group or individual settings. Alternately, students working with peers without the direct involvement of the teacher are arguably more at risk of becoming distracted and off-task compared to a student working independently, potentially leading to this type of instruction requiring more effort from the teacher in terms of monitoring the group from a distance. Based on this, we predicted that students of teachers with more symptoms would experience less time in student-managed instruction where they are working alongside peers, and more time in student-managed instruction where they are working independently.

Regarding the remaining types of instructional experiences investigated (planning/organizing, time off-task, and time in transitions), findings that teachers' depressive symptoms are predictive of classroom-level organization (Sandilos et al., 2015) provide initial evidence for our hypothesis that students would experience less planning/organizing instruction when in classrooms with teachers reporting more symptoms. We also considered student time spent off-task and in transitions. The teacher's role in these activities is more passive compared to the provision of direct instruction; however in these cases the teacher is responsible for monitoring students throughout the day and redirecting students who disengage from learning activities or who do not transition between activities efficiently. Past findings suggest that teachers' stress and challenges with emotion regulation impede their abilities to effectively monitor students and manage behavior (Li Grining et al., 2010; Raver et al., 2008). Further, correlates of clinical depression such as emotional exhaustion and diminished sense of personal accomplishment are associated with lower levels of teachers' efficacy in classroom management (Aloe et al., 2014). Building from these established patterns, we anticipated that the students of teachers reporting more depressive symptoms would spend more time both off-task and in transitions between activities.

The goal of this study was to provide a more complete understanding of how teachers' depressive symptoms influence the instructional context of the classroom. Toward this goal, we examined the following three research questions (see Fig. 1): First (RQ 1), what are the relations between teachers' self-reported depressive symptoms and the amounts of time their students spend in five types of academic instruction, including teacher-facilitated academic instruction in whole-class, small-group and individual groupings and students' independent work in small-group and individual groupings? Second (RQ 2), how are teachers' self-reported depressive symptoms related to the amounts of time students spend exposed to planning/organizing instruction? Last, (RQ 3), how are teachers' self-reported depressive symptoms related to the amounts of time students spend off-task and in transition?

Section snippets

Participants

Five hundred and twenty three third grade students and their 32 teachers from eight schools in a North Florida school district were recruited to participate in a large longitudinal study investigating the influence of various teacher instructional practices on student learning. From this full sample, 8 to 12 students per classroom were randomly selected from strata categorized by fall academic achievement (low, average, and high-achieving students) to be observed for classroom instructional

Descriptive statistics and correlations

Descriptive statistics for all study variables are provided in Table 1. Teachers' total scores on the adapted CES-D and students' average number of minutes in each type of instruction across the three time points are reported. Students generally spent more time in academic instruction (TCM and CPM) than in planning/organizing or non-instructional activities and slightly more time in CPM than in TCM academic instruction. Within TCM academic instruction, students spent the most time in academic

Discussion

The present study extends current research that has observed negative associations between teachers' depressive symptoms and globally observed classroom factors by focusing more acutely on differences in students' classroom instructional experiences, assessed at the student level, as a function of their teachers' depressive symptoms. We were interested in eight classroom instructional experiences that we conceptualized to reflect varying levels of teacher effort and engagement, including five

References (48)

  • C. Carre

    The first year of teaching

  • M.L. Chang

    An appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers

    Educational Psychology Review

    (2009)
  • C.M. Connor et al.

    A longitudinal cluster-randomized controlled study on the accumulating effects of individualized literacy instruction on students' reading from first through third grade

    Psychological Science

    (2013)
  • C.M. Connor et al.

    The ISI classroom observation system: Examining the literacy instruction provided to individual students

    Educational Researcher

    (2009)
  • C.M. Connor et al.

    A second chance in second grade: The independent and cumulative impact of first-and-second-grade reading instruction and students’ letter-word reading skill growth

    Scientific Studies of Reading

    (2007)
  • C.M. Connor et al.

    Individualizing student instruction precisely: Effects of child× instruction interactions on first Graders' literacy development

    Child Development

    (2009)
  • C.M. Connor et al.

    Capturing the complexity: Content, type, and amount of instruction and quality of the classroom learning environment synergistically predict third graders' vocabulary and reading comprehension outcomes

    Journal of Educational Psychology

    (2014)
  • W. Darr et al.

    Work strain, health, and absenteeism: A meta-analysis

    Journal of Occupational Health Psychology

    (2008)
  • K.E. Diamond et al.

    Synthesis of IES research on early intervention and early childhood education. NCSER 2013–3001

    (2013)
  • J.T. Downer et al.

    Implications of information processing theory for professional development of early educators

  • G.J. Duncan et al.

    Preventing preschool fadeout through instructional intervention in kindergarten and first grade

    (2015)
  • C.K. Enders

    Applied missing data analysis

    (2010)
  • D.F. Feldon

    Cognitive load and classroom teaching: The double-edged sword of automaticity

    Educational Psychologist

    (2007)
  • K. Ferguson et al.

    Predicting teacher anxiety, depression, and job satisfaction

    Journal of Teaching and Learning

    (2012)
  • Cited by (24)

    • Both sides of the screen: Predictors of parents’ and teachers’ depression and food insecurity during COVID-19-related distance learning

      2022, Early Childhood Research Quarterly
      Citation Excerpt :

      Consistent with research linking parental depression to disrupted parent-child interaction, studies of teachers find that those who are more depressed provide less positive feedback to students (McLean & Connor, 2018), display more negative responses to children's emotions (Buettner, Jeon, Hur, & Garcia, 2016), and have more conflict with students (Whitaker, Dearth-Wesley, & Gooze, 2015). Depressed teachers also spend less time planning and organizing (McLean, Abry, Taylor, & Connor, 2018). Teachers’ depression is also linked to lower observed instructional support, classroom organization, and overall classroom quality (Jeon, Buettner, & Snyder, 2014; Sandilos et al., 2015).

    • Depressive and anxiety symptoms in early childhood education teachers: Relations to professional well-being and absenteeism

      2021, Early Childhood Research Quarterly
      Citation Excerpt :

      However, while these teachers have been tasked with the responsibility of implementing education reforms, little attention has been paid to their mental health or professional well-being. An emerging body of literature highlights the importance of mental health for teacher effectiveness, with results revealing important consequences of poor teacher mental health for classroom quality and student achievement (Harding et al., 2019; Hindman & Bustamante, 2019; Jeon et al., 2018; McLean et al., 2017; McLean & Connor, 2015). Yet few studies have examined associations between teachers’ mental health and professional well-being.

    View all citing articles on Scopus

    Funding for this project was provided by the U.S. Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences (R305H040013 and R305B070074) and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD48539, R21HD062834, and P50HD052120).

    View full text