Research BriefValid and Reliable Measures of Cognitive Behaviors toward Fruits and Vegetables for Children Aged 9 to 11 Years
Introduction
Elementary school-based venues for nutrition education have been advocated for and implemented through classroom-based, after-school, and fresh fruit and vegetable (FV) availability programs.1, 2 Although topics addressed vary (eg, snacks,3 gardening,4 and taste appreciation5), FV-related behaviors remain the focal point of education efforts.6, 7 Nutrition and child education experts recommend integrated, experiential school-based interventions that feature sequential lessons, repeated opportunities to taste new food items, and positive and enjoyable approaches with personally relevant and culturally diverse experiences that aim to develop skills such as goal setting, meal planning, and food preparation.2, 8 Programs featuring food preparation experiences for elementary-aged youth report some modicum of skill acquisition and increased FV preference and intake, as well as more positive attitudes (ATs) toward cooking and healthful eating.9, 10, 11 More extensive classroom-based food preparation curricula with multiple lessons, teacher and parent involvement, and either longitudinal or comparative examination showed impact on knowledge, food acceptance, and intake,12 as well as AT and perceived cooking skills.13
Cooking with Kids (CWK) is a classroom-based curriculum for elementary-aged students that blends cooking and tasting experiences with traditional nutrition education integrated across multiple learning domains and environments. Hands-on cooking activities are integrated with state-based academic standards, school cafeteria meals, and parent involvement.14, 15 Cooking with Kids, which has been favorably reviewed for nutrition educator use,16 aims for children to accept a wide variety of healthful food, acquire practical food preparation skills, and learn about people of different cultures as they work together cooperatively. Eleven hours of cooking classes, delivered by trained food educators, and 5 hours of FV tasting lessons led by classroom teachers are available in the English/Spanish bilingual curriculum. Preliminary field testing and process evaluation with fourth-grade students have revealed favorable outcomes (eg, increased interest in new food items and cooking, increased self-efficacy [SE] for food preparation) with widespread use within Santa Fe, New Mexico public schools.17, 18
A more robust evaluation plan encompassing outcome and impact assessments requires valid and reliable instruments with CWK-specific items. The purpose of this study was to examine validity and reliability of instruments developed to measure preference for fruits and vegetables featured in CWK, as well as SE and AT toward cooking. The authors' focus on assessing test-retest reliability and internal consistency follows a description of instrument development establishing face and content validity.
Section snippets
Instrument Development and Description
Three surveys were developed to assess FV preference and SE for and AT toward cooking. Item construction for each survey was influenced by food, activities, and format of CWK. Target audience comprehension and reaction to survey language, length, and response formatting were assessed through one-on-one cognitive interviews with 123 fourth- and fifth-graders (51 males, 38 Spanish speaking) from 14 classrooms in 6 schools.19 Each student completed 2 versions of a survey (43 assessed the FV
Participants
Responses were provided by 344 students from 6 schools and 16 separate classrooms; however, missing responses resulted in varying sample sizes for each of the 3 surveys. Participant gender, ethnicity, grade level, language use, and cooking participation are noted in Table 1.
Cooking Self-efficacy
T1 SE scores (n = 295) ranged from 8 to 31, with a mean of 12.77± 4.59; T2 scores (n = 296) ranged from 8 to 36, with a mean of 12.03 ±4.51. Internal consistency was evident at T1 (Cronbach α = 0.74) and T2 (Cronbach α =
Discussion
Cooking with Kids objectives are congruent with findings of low FV intake in low-income Hispanic youth.21 However, impact assessment of effective nutrition education programs, namely, those with attention to behaviors and a focus on food preferences and ATs,22 is challenging, requiring instruments that have been psychometrically tested with the target audience.23 This study demonstrated psychometric value for 3 surveys assessing SE for and AT toward cooking and preference of 16
Implications for Research and Practice
Impact assessments for CWK and related elementary school-based cooking curricula are possible with these measures of SE for and AT toward cooking and FV preference, which were tested for face and content validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability in fourth- and fifth-grade, low-income, mostly Hispanic students. In addition, psychometric testing revealed information about cognitive food preparation behaviors, FV preferences, and gender differences useful for future intervention
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the National Research Initiative of the USDA Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service, grant #2006-55215-18718. This work was conducted at the University of New Mexico and the Colorado State University. Thank you to the teachers, principals, and students of participating public schools in Santa Fe, New Mexico Schools and Candice Hewitt, Charlene Gray-Scott, Kim Davis, Rachel Shreve, and Melissa Stevens-Briceño for data collection.
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