Review
Coronavirus in water media: Analysis, fate, disinfection and epidemiological applications

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125580Get rights and content
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Highlights

  • Hazards associated to SARS-CoV-2 in water media.

  • Concentration and detection methods of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater.

  • Inactivation methods of SARS-CoV-2.

  • Current status of wastewater-based epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2.

  • Limits, challenges and perspectives in wastewater-based epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2.

Abstract

Considerable attention has been recently given to possible transmission of SARS-CoV-2 via water media. This review addresses this issue and examines the fate of coronaviruses (CoVs) in water systems, with particular attention to the recently available information on the novel SARS-CoV-2. The methods for the determination of viable virus particles and quantification of CoVs and, in particular, of SARS-CoV-2 in water and wastewater are discussed with particular regard to the methods of concentration and to the emerging methods of detection. The analysis of the environmental stability of CoVs, with particular regard of SARS-CoV-2, and the efficacy of the disinfection methods are extensively reviewed as well. This information provides a broad view of the state-of-the-art for researchers involved in the investigation of CoVs in aquatic systems, and poses the basis for further analyses and discussions on the risk associated to the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in water media. The examined data indicates that detection of the virus in wastewater and natural water bodies provides a potentially powerful tool for quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) and for wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) for the evaluation of the level of circulation of the virus in a population. Assays of the viable virions in water media provide information on the integrity, capability of replication (in suitable host species) and on the potential infectivity. Challenges and critical issues relevant to the detection of coronaviruses in different water matrixes with both direct and surrogate methods as well as in the implementation of epidemiological tools are presented and critically discussed.

Abbreviations

µPAD
microfluidic paper analytic device
BSL
Biosafety Level
CCoV
canine coronavirus
CDC
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CoV
coronavirus
COVID-19
CoronaVirus Disease 19
CPE
cytopathic effects
CRISPR
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
ddPCR
droplet digital polymerase chain reaction
DMEM
Dulbecco minimal essential medium
dPCR
digital polymerase chain reaction
E
envelope protein
EPA
United States Environmental Protection Agency
FBS
fetal bovine serum
FET
field-effect transistor
FIPV
feline infectious peritonitis virus
ICC-MS
integrated cell culture-mass spectrometry
M
membrane protein
MBRs
membrane bioreactors
MEM
minimal essential medium
MERS
Middle East respiratory syndrome
MHV
murine hepatitis virus
MPAD
Multiplex Paired-Antibody Amplified Detection
MS
mass spectrometry
MWCO
molecular weight cut-off
N
nucleocapsid protein
NoV
noroviruses
OSHA
United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PBS
phosphate-buffered saline
PCR
polymerase chain reaction
PEG
poly(ethylene glycol)
PS
polystyrene
QMRA
quantitative microbiological risk assessment
qPCR
quantitative polymerase chain reaction
RdRp
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
RIVM
Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu
RNA
ribonucleic acid
rRT-LAMP
real-time reverse transcription loop mediated isothermal amplification
RT-ddPCR
reverse transcription droplet digital polymerase chain reaction
RT-LAMP
reverse transcription loop mediated isothermal amplification
RT-PCR
reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
S
spike protein
SARI
Sorveglianza Ambientale Reflue in Italia
SARS-CoV-2
severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2
TCID50
tissue culture infectious dose-50
TGEV
transmissible gastroenteritis virus
UV
ultraviolet radiation
VIRADEL
virus adsorption-elution
WBE
wastewater-based epidemiology
WHO
World Health Organization
WWTP
wastewater treatment plant

Keywords

SARS-CoV-2
Coronavirus
Hazards
Viable virus
Infectivity
Detection
Concentration
Persistence
Disinfection
Epidemiology
Environment
Wastewater
Drinking water

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