Elsevier

Journal of Ethnopharmacology

Volume 229, 30 January 2019, Pages 326-341
Journal of Ethnopharmacology

Zanthoxylum armatum DC.: Current knowledge, gaps and opportunities in Nepal

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.08.010Get rights and content

Abstract

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. possesses several medicinal properties and has been commonly used in different indigenous medicinal practices to cure several diseases because of its stomachic, carminative and anthelmintic properties.

Aim

This review paper aims to provide an update on and analysis of information about the ecology, uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, trade opportunities, policy gaps for the commercialization of this species forming a basis for further scientific innovations

Materials and methods

Information was gathered through a search of different books, journals, articles, annual reports, proceedings and web-based materials.

Result

Alkaloids, sterols, phenolics, lignins coumarins, terpenoids and flavonoids have been identified from leaves, fruits, stem, bark and seeds. Its trade value is also very high with its manifold applications in Ayurveda, allopathy, general pharmacy, and other industries. Antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, hepato-protective, insecticidal/larvicidal effects are of particular relevance.

Conclusion

It is one of the prioritized medicinal plants for economic development in Nepal. Owing to its diverse applications, the species can be developed as an important commodity for alleviation of poverty in rural areas. The various ethno-pharmacological applications of Zanthoxylum armatum have been verified by several related researches. More extensive study on the individual specific phyto-component can lead to novel innovations for the well-being of mankind.

Introduction

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (Rutaceae), commonly called Timur in Nepal (English: Nepal pepper or prickly ash), is an important medicinal plant. Eight species of Zanthoxylum have been reported from Nepal till now: Z. acanthopodium DC., Zanthoxylum armatum DC., Z. floribunda Wall., Z. nepalense Babu, Z. nitidum (Roxb.) DC., Z. oxyphyllum Edgew., Z. simularis Hance and Z. tomentellum Hook. f. (DPR, 2011a, 2016; Rajbhandari et al., 2015). Even though eight species of Zanthoxylum have been included in this review as being used in Nepal, only five species have been accepted taxonomically according to The Plant List. Z. nepalense Babu is classed as an unresolved name, while Z. floribunda Wall and Z. simularis Hance are not recorded there (The Plant List, 2013). Among these species reported from Nepal, Zanthoxylum armatum DC. is the most common and one of the 30 medicinal plants of the country, which has been prioritized by the government of Nepal for economic development with a high emphasis on cultivation and agro-technology development (DPR, 2006).

The different parts of the plants: leaves, fruits, stem, bark, seeds have been used in several indigenous medicinal practices as carminative, antipyretic, appetizer, stomachic, toothache, dyspepsia (Manandhar, 2002, Kala et al., 2005, Singh et al., 2016). A wide array of chemical compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, lignins, coumarins, phenols, terpenoids have been found in this plant. These compounds are responsible for various biological activities like antioxidative, antimicrobial, antiviral, hepato-protective, insecticidal/larvicidal etc., which have been demonstrated by several pharmacological studies. There is a huge demand of Zanthoxylum armatum in both domestic and international market due to which the market price has been escalating in the last two decades (Hertog and Wiersum, 2000).

Despite of the species' importance, a comprehensive review on Zanthoxylum armatum is still not available. Hence an effort has been made to gather all the fragmentary information of Zanthoxylum armatum regarding the uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and to analyze the current state of knowledge and possible opportunities that can be tapped for the overall benefit of the rural communities. It is important to establish a strong linkage between the traditional knowledge and modern researches to authenticate the ages old traditional ethno-medicinal practices. Hence it is expected that this information will be of relative significance to all the stakeholders, students and researchers for future research prospects.

Section snippets

Morphology and anatomy

Zanthoxylum armatum (Fig. 1) is a small aromatic tree or large shrub up to 6 m high. Branches are glabrous, usually armed with straight or slightly compressed, reddish brown stipular spines. The leaves are imparipinnate with 3–5 pairs of leaflets, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, base rounded or cuneate, sessile, margins usually entire, with a large gland associated with each tooth. The petiole and rachis are often winged between leaflets and sometimes bearing a spine at the point of insertion.

Distribution and ecology

Zanthoxylum armatum is found in hot valleys of subtropical to temperate Himalayas (Kashmir to Bhutan), north-east India and Pakistan, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Japan, North & South Korea, north Vietnam, Taiwan, Lesser Sunda Islands, Philippines, Malaya peninsula and Sumatra (Nair and Nayar, 1997). In Nepal, it is distributed from west to east at an elevation range of 1000–2500 m in open places or in forest undergrowth (DPR, 2007). The distribution range of Zanthoxylum

Propagation

It is generally propagated through seeds, but also from vegetative parts through soft wood cuttings. Natural regeneration usually occurs through seeds but the seeds undergo strong dormancy and may take few months to years for germination. Freshly harvested seeds are best for the large-scale cultivation. The seeds are sown in August-September in polybags in nursery or main field. The seeds germinate in 20–30 days after sowing. Stem cuttings may also be planted in the nursery during monsoon in

Vernacular information

Zanthoxylum armatum, commonly known as Prickly Ash, Winged Prickly Ash is a common Nepalese spice plant. It is called as Timur in Nepali. It is known by various names in different regions and languages.

Vernacular names in different ethnic groups of Nepal

BhojpuriTimur
ChepangTimpur, Upur
DanuwarTimur,Tirkene
GurungPrumo
LepchaSungrukung, Timbur
LimbuMidimba, Warekpa
NewariTebu
RaiKhakchan, Terkane
SherpaYerma
SunwarSekkren
TamangPrumo
TharuTimur
TibetanGyer-ma

Source: Manadhar, 2002.

In other countries/

Ethnobotanical uses / importance

Zanthoxylum armatum has been used extensively in traditional indigenous medicinal practices in Nepal by different ethnic communities. Several ethnobotanical studies have documented the various ethnomedicinal uses in different types of ailments. The seeds and barks of Z. armatum are used as aromatic, carminative, tonic in fever, dyspepsia (Anonymous, 1970). In stomach problems, the seeds powder is taken with warm water. The fruits and seeds are used for curing cholera, tooth ache and as leech

Phytochemistry

Various phytochemical constituents like terpenoids (Fig. 3), flavonoids (Fig. 4), alkaloids (Fig. 5), phenolics, lignins (Fig. 6), coumarins (Fig. 7), glycosides and benzoids, steroids (Fig. 8), fatty acids, alkenoic acids, amino acids have been extracted from different parts of the plant i.e. seed, leaf, fruit, root and bark (Li et al., 2006, Tiwary et al., 2007, Negi et al., 2011, Negi et al., 2012, Waheed et al., 2011, Joshi and Gyawali, 2012, Barkatullah et al., 2013, Brijwal et al., 2013,

Biological activities

Different studies have shown that Zanthoxylum armatum possesses different pharmacological and biological activities like larvicidal, antifungal, hepato-protective, keratolytic, antiviral, antiprotozoan, pesticidal/insecticidal, antibacterial, anthelminthic, allelopathic from different extracts i.e., dichloromethane, acetone, aqueous, ethanol, methanol, petroleum ether etc.

Trade

The tradition of collection and sale of Zanthoxylum armatum in Nepal has a long history and can be dated back to the early 80s, when the trade started with India, before which it was used by the rural communities for domestic purposes (Malla et al., 1993). Historically, the rural people traded different medicinal plants including Zanthoxylum armatum as a source of their income (Manandhar, 1986, Kunwar et al., 2018). There was a social mechanism of exchange and distribution of Timur, and the

Opportunities

Species of Zanthoxylum are of great economic importance as source of edible fruit, oil, wood, raw materials for industries, medicinal plant, ornamental, culinary application (Adesina, 2005, Seidemann, 2005). Different plant parts leaves, fruits, stem, bark, seeds and root are used in indigenous medicine preparation against various diseases (Singh and Singh, 2011). This plant species is not only used for pharmaceutical purposes, but also in the flavoring and fragrance industries. The diverse

Gaps

The National Conservation Strategy (NPC, 1988) emphasized on the enforcement of legislations for sustainable extraction and utilization of MAPs of Nepal. Similarly, Master Plan for the Forestry Sector (DoF, 1989), Industrial Enterprises Act (GoN, 1992), Forest Act (GoN, 1993) and Regulations (GoN,1995), Herbs and Non-Timber Forest Products Development Policy (DPR, 2004) have emphasized on the subsequent development of the NTFPs including MAPs for uplifting the livelihood of the rural

Conclusion

Zanthoxylum armatum is one of the important medicinal plants having a wide array of household, commercial and ethno-medicinal applications. The fruits, leaves, seeds and stem bark are used in headache, fever, toothache, tonsillitis, diarrhea, dysentery, altitude sickness. The fruits contain essential oil that possesses antiseptic, disinfectant properties so it has its wide application in pharmaceuticals and flavoring industries. The main constituents of the essential oil are limonene and

Acknowledgements

Nirmala Phuyal is thankful to Dabur Nepal Private Limited for the grant ‘Late Sri Ashok Chand Burman Dabur CSR Fellowhip 01/2016’. The authors would like to thank Michael Heinrich and the other three anonymous reviewers whose constructive comments and suggestions helped to improve this article. We are grateful to Prof. Dr. Mohan Siwakoti, Head Central Department of Botany for his support. Associate Prof. Dr. Suresh Kumar Ghimire, Central Department of Botany and Mr. Ganga Datt Bhatt, Assistant

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