Elsevier

Health & Place

Volume 35, September 2015, Pages 28-36
Health & Place

Social network and census tract-level influences on substance use among emerging adult males: An activity spaces approach

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2015.06.004Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Peer behavior within social networks influences substance use among emerging minority men.

  • Neighborhood factors may influence behavior differently for risky versus non-risky spaces.

  • Including multiple activity spaces is an important tool in elucidating these relationships.

Abstract

Social network and area level characteristics have been linked to substance use. We used snowball sampling to recruit 90 predominantly African American emerging adult men who provided typical locations visited (n=510). We used generalized estimating equations to examine social network and area level predictors of substance use. Lower social network quality was associated with days of marijuana use (B=−0.0037, p<0.0001) and problem alcohol use (B=−0.0050, p=0.0181). The influence of area characteristics on substance use differed between risky and non-risky spaces. Peer and area influences are important for substance use among men, and may differ for high and low risk places.

Introduction

Emerging adulthood (age 18–25) is a time when men seek employment and become independent from family, providing more opportunity for risk behavior. Alcohol and substance use are common among emerging adults, with estimates in the US near 70% for past year alcohol use and 43% for illicit drug use (Swendsen et al., 2012). Substance abuse (e.g., substance use associated with impairment or distress at work or school, interpersonally, or with legal implications; American Psychological Association, 2000) may result in various adverse outcomes, including mortality, unsafe sex, poor mental health, and crime (Brooks-Russell et al., 2013, Degenhardt and Hall, 2012, Moss et al., 1 2014, Patrick et al., 2011, Patrick et al., 2013). In addition, heavy use early in life may lead to subsequent substance abuse or dependence (e.g, physical tolerance of a substance or inability to control substance use) (American Psychological Association. Diagnostic an, 2000, Patrick et al., 2011, Mennis and Mason, 2012). Males are particularly susceptible to problems with alcohol and substances and are at greater risk of becoming regular alcohol and illicit drug users and develop substance abuse and dependence (Swendsen et al., 2012, Degenhardt and Hall, 2012). These problems are striking for minority men. While some studies indicate that black men are less likely to use substances compared to white men (Horton, 2007, Lee et al., 2010, Zapolski et al., Jan 2014), there is some evidence that black men may be more likely to experience problems with substances—particularly alcohol—compared to white men (Zapolski et al., Jan 2014, Zemore et al., 2013). Importantly, the black–white disparity among men may be attenuated when adjusting for socioeconomic measures (e.g., employment, household income, education) and other demographics (Zemore et al., 2013). These studies underscore the importance of additional studies of substance use among emerging adult minority men while incorporating socioeconomic measures.

Use of substances such as marijuana and alcohol has been linked to peer and environmental characteristics. Socialization theory suggests that substance using peers increase the risk an individuals' use of illicit drugs or alcohol by social learning (Osgood et al., 2013). Consequently, young adults who belong to social networks with higher concentrations of alcohol and drug users are more likely to use alcohol and drugs themselves (Patrick et al., 2011, Degenhardt and Hall, 2012, Mennis and Mason, 2012, Pacek et al., 2012, Valente et al., 2004, Reifman et al., 2006, Brenner et al., 2011). For example, one study found that individuals are 50% more likely to drink alcohol if one of their social network members drinks (Rosenquist et al., 2010). Other studies have shown that social networks influence drug use, including tobacco and marijuana (Christakis and Fowler, 2008, Mennis and Mason, 2012, Mason et al., 2010, Mason et al., 2009, Maxwell, 2002). The composition and qualities of those social networks (e.g, how many members of the network are substance using and how much influence do specific members have on an individual's behavior) may be particularly important during late adolescence and young adulthood as individuals spend more time in peer contexts and less time at home (Lam et al., 2012).

Negative area-level characteristics, including poverty and crime, have also been linked to greater alcohol and drug use (Furr-Holden et al., 2011, Vinther-Larsen et al., 2013, Matheson et al., 2012). These characteristics may influence substance use via different pathways. Neighborhood stress-based frameworks posit that these types of neighborhood features act as chronic stressors; in this context, individuals may use alcohol or illicit drugs to alleviate or cope with these stressors (Stockdale et al., 2007). However, it is important to note that the evidence for these associations is mixed; while some studies support this theory and show greater alcohol and drug use in areas of low socioeconomic status and high crime, others show greater substance use in areas with more socioeconomic advantage (Karriker-Jaffe, 2011, Jackson et al., 2014, Molina et al., 2012). Environmental structural theories suggest that physical features of the environment, such as easy access to alcohol outlets, enable risky behaviors (Brenner et al., 2011, Scribner et al., 2000). A recent systematic review found a modest association between alcohol outlet density and higher odds of heavy alcohol consumption, though findings were varied across studies (Bryden et al., 2012). Studies specifically targeting adolescents to examine the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol outlet density have found greater binge or excessive drinking in geographic areas with higher densities of alcohol outlets (Jackson et al., 2014, Chen et al., 2009, Young et al., 2013) suggesting that community availability of alcohol is important in understanding drinking patterns in populations that may have limited access to alcohol. In emerging adult social networks, there may be members of the network of age to purchase alcohol, which may also influence alcohol use in younger members of the network. Availability of alcohol may also influence drug use in emerging adults. A recent study found a decrease in marijuana use with increasing distance to the nearest off-premise alcohol outlet (e.g., retailers selling alcohol for consumption in a place other than the retail location) (Milam et al., 2012). Exploration of area-level characteristics that operate on both pathways is important in understanding substance use among emerging adults.

In addition, exploration of features of the environment that may be protective against substance use is important. Access to places for recreational purposes or spiritual and social support may be protective against substance use via stress-buffering mechanisms. In one study, places identified by substance-using adolescents as risky were further from churches and recreation centers with programs for adolescents (Mason et al., 2009). Further, Stockdale reported that neighborhood assets such as churches may buffer the risk of developing severe alcohol or drug disorders (Stockdale et al., 2007). Other work has documented religiosity as a buffer to stress and protective against substance use; consequently, the role of churches in the community could have a positive influence on drug and alcohol behaviors (Miller et al., 2000, Rasic et al., 2011). Further, the presence of neighborhood parks may be considered community assets that provide opportunities for social interaction and improve psychosocial health, which could be protective against substance use (Baur et al., 2013, Coen and Ross, 2006).

Brofenbrenner's ecological model for human development (Brofenbrenner, 1994, Brofenbrenner, 1979) guided the selection of variables used to examine the influence of social and environmental factors on marijuana and alcohol use in a sample of emerging adult men. This framework emphasizes the importance of complex interactions between individuals and the people, objects, and situations encountered in different environmental contexts (Brofenbrenner, 1994, Brofenbrenner, 1979). Mason and colleagues have applied this framework in previous work examining activity spaces (e.g., places individuals travel to routinely) and substance use among adolescents (Mennis and Mason, 2012, Mason et al., 2010). Their work has shown differences in the composition of social networks and proximity to negative aspects of the environment (e.g., crime) related to substance use, suggesting that different contexts or settings may interact to influence individuals' behavior (Mennis and Mason, 2012, Mason et al., 2010, Mason et al., 2009).

We chose a variety of measures that may promote or protect against substance use among emerging adult men. Measures were chosen due to empirical links to alcohol or marijuana use (e.g., income, crime, police, alcohol outlets, and churches) (Mason et al., 2009, Stockdale et al., 2007, Miller et al., 2000, Tucker et al., 2013, Mennis and Mason, 2011) theoretical links to alcohol or marijuana use (e.g., parks) (Baur et al., 2013, Coen and Ross, 2006), or places that emerged while talking with emerging men about the places they spend time in (e.g., libraries).

The present study expands on previous work by measuring social network and environmental influences at multiple activity spaces. A significant limitation in many previous studies examining neighborhood context and substance use is the inclusion of one or few locations, often home residence (Mennis and Mason, 2012, Mason et al., 2010, Mason et al., 2009, Mennis and Mason, 2011, Valente et al., 2004). Previous work indicates that neighborhood characteristics beyond home residence may have more of an influence on risk behavior than neighborhood characteristics of home residence, demonstrating our need to expand the notion of how geographical context may influence health (Mennis and Mason, 2011, Cromley et al., Aug 2010). For example, Mennis and Mason reported that substance use was not associated geographic features of adolescents' home locations; in contrast, neighborhood features such as further distance to police stations and more violent crime were associated with substance use at non-home locations (Mennis and Mason, 2011). Incorporating multiple locations may be particularly relevant for emerging adults who may spend less time at home and more time in peer contexts during this period (Lam et al., 2012). Utilizing activity spaces approach has been identified by Mason and colleagues as important in advancing our understanding of how different social and geographical contexts contribute to unique risks at different activity spaces (Mennis and Mason, 2012, Mason et al., 2010, Mason et al., 2009). To our knowledge, this is the first study to consider all activity spaces identified by participants, which allows us to capture the full mobility of individuals while taking into account fluid social networks and neighborhood contexts.

We utilized an activity spaces approach to examine alcohol and drug use among emerging adult men. Specifically, we aimed to (1) assess the influence of social networks and census tract level characteristics (socioeconomic and built environment characteristics) as independent predictors of substance use, (2) examine whether activity spaces characterized as risky or non-risky differ by social network influence and census tract level characteristics, and (3) assess whether these associations differ for risky and non-risky locations.

Section snippets

Procedures

The study included young men participating in a longitudinal study of social networks, health behavior and health outcomes among emerging males in New Haven, CT. The recruitment process began with use of epidemiologic and census data to identify neighborhoods with high rates of poverty, crime, and negative health outcomes. Outreach workers went to these areas and mapped locations within these neighborhoods that were frequented by young men. Snowball sampling was used to recruit friends of

Results

The sample consisted of 90 emerging adult males (Table 1). Participants were predominantly African American (77%) or Hispanic (18%), while the remaining participants were White (5%). The mean age was 20.57 (SD=1.97) while the mean education was 13.00 years (SD=2.02). The mean household income was $20,428 (SD=$25,181).

Past year alcohol use was endorsed by 80% (n=72) of the participants and among all participants the mean problem alcohol score was 3.56 (SD=2.66). Lifetime marijuana use was

Discussion

Our study provides evidence that peer and area-level features of activity spaces influence alcohol and marijuana use among a sample of mostly minority emerging adult men. Our results extend the work of Mason and colleagues by exploring these associations at multiple activity space identified by individual participants, which is particularly important for the emerging adult men who participated in our study, as they visit many different places during a typical week. Consistent with previous work

Acknowledgments

All phases of this project were supported by a grant to Dr. Trace Kershaw from the National Institutes of Health (1R21DA031146). We would like to thank Danya Keene for her feedback and guidance during this process.

References (58)

  • K.M. Molina et al.

    Neighborhood context and substance use disorders: a comparative analysis of racial and ethnic groups in the United States

    Drug Alcohol Depend.

    (2012)
  • L. Miller et al.

    Religiosity and substance use and abuse among adolescents in the national comorbidity survey

    J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry

    (2000)
  • D. Rasic et al.

    Protective associations of importance of religion and frequency of service attendance with depression risk, suicidal behaviours and substance use in adolescents in Nova Scotia, Canada

    J. Affect. Disorders

    (2011)
  • S.E.W.K. Stockdale et al.

    The importance of social context: Neighborhood stressors, stress-buffering mechanisms, and alcohol, drug, and mental health disorders

    Soc. Sci. Med.

    (2007)
  • J.S. Tucker et al.

    Neighborhood characteristics and the initiation of marijuana use and binge drinking

    Drug Alcohol Depend.

    (2013)
  • M. Vinther-Larsen et al.

    Area level deprivation and drinking patterns among adolescents

    Health Place

    (2013)
  • R. Young et al.

    Associations between proximity and density of local alcohol outlets and alcohol use among Scottish adolescents

    Health & Place

    (2013)
  • American Psychological Association

    Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition

    (2000)
  • A Brooks-Russell et al.

    Longitudinal relationship between drinking with peers, descriptive norms, and adolescent alcohol use

    Prev. Sci.: Off.J. Soc. Prev. Res.

    (2013)
  • A.B. Brenner et al.

    Neighborhood variation in adolescent alcohol use: examination of socioecological and social disorganization theories

    J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs

    (2011)
  • J.W.R. Baur et al.

    Urban nature parks and neighborhood social health in Portland, Oregon

    J. Park Recreat. Adm.

    (2013)
  • U. Brofenbrenner

    Ecological models of human development

    (1994)
  • U. Brofenbrenner

    The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design

    (1979)
  • J.D. Boardman et al.

    Neighborhood disadvantage, stress, and drug use among adults

    J. Health Soc. Behav.

    (2001)
  • N.A. Christakis et al.

    The collective dynamics of smoking in a large social network

    N. Engl. J. Med.

    (2008)
  • E.K. Cromley et al.

    Spatial dimensions of research on alcohol and sexual risk: a case example from a Mumbai study

    AIDS Behav.

    (2010)
  • A.V. Diez-Roux

    Multilevel analysis in public health research

    Annu. Rev. Publ. Health

    (2000)
  • C.D. Furr-Holden et al.

    The growth of neighborhood disorder and marijuana use among urban adolescents: a case for policy and environmental interventions

    J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs

    (2011)
  • Google Inc., 2014. Google Earth (Version...
  • Cited by (0)

    View full text