The no-tillage system and cover crops—Alternatives to increase upland rice yields
Highlights
► Upland rice under no-till system is an alternative to produce rice saving more water. ► Cover crops management may improve N release and upland rice yield. ► Millet as cover crop allowed fast N release, reduced soil density and improve rice yield. ► Nature of cover crops and tillage system could be used to achieve high upland rice yield.
Introduction
Rice is included in the diet of half of the world's population (CGIAR, 2006, Africa Rice Center, 2009, Kumar and Ladha, 2011). Most of this cereal is grown on irrigated land (Farooq et al., 2009, Prasad, 2011). However, available water resources have been reduced due to the competing demands of industry and population, and consequently, alternatives are sought that allow greater efficiency of water use (Feng et al., 2007, Qu et al., 2008). Some alternatives include growing rice under aerobic conditions (both irrigated and not irrigated), the use of cover crops and better conservation of soil moisture (Bouman and Tuong, 2001, Tao et al., 2006). Atlin et al. (2002) reported that in Northeast China, where lowland irrigated rice production is no longer possible due to water shortages, upland rice cultivars occupy approximately 120,000 ha. Tuong and Bouman (2003) have predicted that by 2025, approximately 15–20 million ha of lowland irrigated rice will suffer from some degree of water scarcity. Bouman et al. (2007) adds that farmers are already growing upland rice on approximately 80,000 ha in Northern China.
Upland rice is cultivated in Asia, Africa and the Americas (CGIAR, 2006). In these places, rice is normally associated with poor farmers, who use low-level technology and have problems with drought, one of the major upland production constraints, resulting in low upland rice yields (Crusciol et al., 2006, CGIAR, 2006, Erenstein and Laxmi, 2008, Heinemann et al., 2011, Kumar and Ladha, 2011, Oonyu, 2011, Prasad, 2011). According to Kumar and Ladha (2011), the major challenge in rice production is to produce this grain using less water, labor, and chemicals, thereby ensuring long-term sustainability. These authors added that agronomic management and technological innovation are needed to address rice production and to avoid imbalances between long-term supply and demand.
In this sense, the no-tillage system (NTS) has demonstrated impressive growth worldwide and is used in almost 117 million ha in Latin America (58 million ha), the USA and Canada (40 million ha), and Australia (17 million ha) (FAO, 2012). Kumar and Ladha (2011) reported that the direct seeding of rice can provide several benefits to farmers and the environment compared with the conventional practice of puddling and transplanting. These authors added that this system has great potential in South Asia as an alternative method of producing rice with less water consumption. Supporting this idea, new upland rice cultivars with improved lodging resistance, harvest index, and input responsiveness have been developed in breeding programs in China, Brazil, and the Philippines (Atlin et al., 2002). In addition, Barbosa Filho and Yamada (2002), Saito et al. (2005), Crusciol et al. (2011) and Oonyu (2011) reported that it is possible to achieve yields of 4000–5000 kg ha−1 of upland rice under adequate hydric conditions.
However, upland rice crop is not doing well under the NTS (Olofintoye and Mabbayad, 1980, Kluthcouski et al., 2000, Crusciol et al., 2010a, Nascente et al., 2011b, Pacheco et al., 2011, Nascente et al., 2012). This could occur because rice has a very sensitive root system that is unable to grow in compacted soil (Kluthcouski et al., 2000). Under the NTS, soil bulk density can increase due to the use of machines during sowing, cultivation and crop harvest without tillage, thereby decreasing upland rice shoot growth (Guimarães and Moreira, 2001). Another reason for the poor performance of upland rice under the NTS could be the lack of nitrogen available during early rice development under the NTS. This could happen because when there is high amount of straw on the soil surface with high C N relation, it can cause reduction of the nitrogen in the soil. Bacteria and fungi consume inorganic molecules like nitrogen and incorporate them into their cells. Therefore, it does not move easily through the soil and is unavailable to plants (Fageria et al., 2011). Nascente et al. (2011a) reported that rice growing in the NTS achieved grain yields similar to that under plowing, when was applied at 45 kg ha−1 of nitrogen one day before rice planting in addition to the use of nitrogen at planting. On the other hand, when this nutrient was applied only as a topdressing (at 45 days after rice planting, the tillering stage) in addition to the use of nitrogen at planting, the rice yield under NTS was lowest and differed from the conventional tillage system (CTS, plowing once and disking twice).
Upland rice in Brazil and Africa achieves highest yields under CTSs (Olofintoye, 1989, Pacheco et al., 2011). Tillage generally improves soil conditions for plant growth, especially under circumstances where the soil presents zones of high strength and compaction (Kluthcouski et al., 2000). Olofintoye and Mabbayad (1980) reported that higher upland rice yields were obtained under the CTS due to higher seedling establishment. Olofintoye (1989) added that upland rice plant height and tillering at early growth stages were lower in no-till than in conventional and minimum tillage plots. Nascente et al. (2011a), comparing eight upland rice cultivars under the NTS and CTS, observed higher yields in the CTS for seven cultivars. Only one cultivar gave similar yields in both tillage systems. Therefore, it is very common in Brazil to plow degraded pastures containing Brachiaria brizantha and afterward, to introduce upland rice for two growing seasons before returning the land once more to pasture (Kluthcouski et al., 2000).
Brazilian agriculture uses a land area of approximately 50 million ha; NTSs are used on almost 25 million ha of this, and the area is increasing (Nascente and Crusciol, 2012). In these areas, the main cash crops are corn, soybean, and cotton, and farmers are unwilling to till the soil to introduce upland rice to this system. Therefore, it is important to develop technologies that achieve high rice grain yields under NTSs that are similar to those obtained under the CTS, and in this way, to develop sustainable agriculture, improve food production and use less water (Farooq et al., 2009).
Under the NTS, covering the soil with straw before cash crop deployment is an essential requirement (Dabney et al., 2001, Sulc and Tracy, 2007, Allen et al., 2007, Russele et al., 2007, Aranda et al., 2011, Crusciol et al., 2012, Nascente and Crusciol, 2012). Nascente et al., 2012 Because cash crops do not yield sufficient straw to cover the soil throughout the year, forage species are increasingly being grown as cover crops in Brazil (Crusciol et al., 2012, Nascente and Crusciol, 2012). Millet is an attractive option because of its rapid nutrient release, especially nitrogen (Crusciol et al., 2010b). In addition, Pacheco et al. (2011) reported good upland rice development under millet in a NTS. Additionally, grasses of the genus Brachiaria and Panicum, which are already being used under NTSs as cover crops for corn and soybean (Nascente and Crusciol, 2012), could be an effective alternative to upland rice. These perennial forage species originate from Africa and have vigorous and deep root systems and high drought tolerance (Valle and Pagliarini, 2009). In addition, these forage crops produce approximately 20 t ha−1 of dry matter per year and can improve soil physical characteristics (Kluthcouski et al., 2000, Valle and Pagliarini, 2009, Crusciol et al., 2010b, Crusciol et al., 2012, Calonego et al., 2011, Castro et al., 2011a, Castro et al., 2011bPacheco et al., 2011, Nascente and Crusciol, 2012).
However, little information is available regarding the behavior of upland rice cultivars under various cover crops in NTSs. Given this fact, and starting from the hypothesis that some cover crop species can create appropriate conditions for upland rice development under the NTS, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of cover crops on upland rice yield and its components in the no-tillage system.
Section snippets
Site descriptions
A field experiment was conducted in a Cerrado region in Santo Antônio de Goiás county in the State of Goiás, Brazil (16° 27’ latitude, 49° 17’ longitude and 823 m local elevation). The regional climate is tropical savanna and is classed as Aw according to the Köppen classification. There are two well-defined seasons: normally dry from May to September and rainy from October to April; the long-term (1962–2012) annual mean rainfall is 1500 mm. The long-term annual mean temperature is 22.7 °C, and
Results
The precipitation from November to March during the 2008–2009 season was 1026.7 mm (Fig. 1). In 2009–2010, the precipitation was 1028.4 mm.
Cover crops produced different amounts of dry matter (Table 2). In general, cover crops grew better during the 2008–2009 season (10.28 Mg ha−1) than in 2009–2010 (8.75 Mg ha−1). Millet produced the lowest amount of dry matter and differed from all other cover crops in both years (6.07 Mg ha−1, 2008 and 4.22 Mg ha−1, 2009). On average, P. maximum (11.62 Mg ha−1), B.
Discussion
According to Bouman et al. (2007), well-distributed rainfall between 400 and 600 mm during the upland rice-growing season is sufficient to achieve high grain yields. In this sense, precipitation during the two growing seasons was adequate to allow the proper development of the rice plants (Fig. 1).
A higher amount of cover crop dry matter was observed in the first year than in the second year (Table 2). This probably occurred because during the first season, cover crops were sown at the beginning
Conclusion
On average, B. brizantha (12.32 Mg ha−1), B. ruziziensis (11.08 Mg ha−1) and P. maximum (11.62 Mg ha−1) had the statistically highest biomass production; however, these grasses also exhibited the statistically smallest upland rice yield (2.30, 2.04, and 2.67 Mg ha−1, respectively) and are not recommended as cover crops before upland rice. Millet and fallow straw degraded most rapidly (half-lives of 52 and 54 days, respectively), and millet exhibited the most rapid nitrogen release (N half-life, 28
Acknowledgments
To EMBRAPA (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation), for supporting this research and for providing Ph.D. scholarship to the first author, and to CNPq (National Council of Scientific and Technological Development), for an award for excellence in research of the second author.
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2023, Journal of Cleaner ProductionEcological intensification of cropping systems enhances soil functions, mitigates soil erosion, and promotes crop resilience to dry spells in the Brazilian Cerrado
2021, International Soil and Water Conservation ResearchCitation Excerpt :These results are in accordance to those reported in other studies (Dechen et al., 2015; Deuschle et al., 2019; Merten et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2015). Intercropped Brachiaria produced high quantity of plant biomass and remained throughout the crop season almost as perennial soil cover (Crusciol et al., 2014; Nascente et al., 2013). Brachiaria grasses have a high C/N ratio in their plant tissue, which reduces the decomposition rate (Timossi et al., 2007), favoring continuity of soil surface protection.