A review of glacier outburst floods in Iceland and Greenland with a megafloods perspective

doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102876

Earth-Science Reviews

Volume 196, September 2019, 102876

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102876 Get rights and content

Abstract

The very largest glacier outburst floods have been termed ‘megafloods’ given their volume and peak discharge. That definition might be revised because those floods have become understood due to their distinctive and pervasive landscape impacts. At least three floods in Iceland can be categorized as megafloods since they produced impressive bedrock canyons and giant fluvially-transported boulders. Glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in Greenland might also have megaflood-type attributes given the enormous lake volumes drained. We therefore here present the first review of glacier outburst floods in Greenland: sites Isvand, Russell Glacier, Kuannersuit Glacier, Lake Tininnilik, two unnamed lakes near Amitsulooq Ice Cap, and Iluliallup Tasersua, Base Camp Lake, Lake Hullett, Qorlortorssup Tasia, Imaersartoq, Tordensø, North Midternæs and an outlet glacier of the A. P. Olsen Ice Cap. Overall, megaflood-type landscape impacts in Iceland tend to be best-preserved and most easily identified inland although there has also been extensive offshore sedimentation. There are very few reported impacts of glacier outburst floods in Greenland. In Greenland ice-dam failure causes frequent flooding compared to the volcanically-triggered floods in Iceland and this combined with the proximity of the Greenland glacier lakes to the coast means that most proglacial channels in Greenland are flood-hardened and most landscape impact is likely to be offshore in estuaries and fjords. Future floods with megaflood-type attributes will occur in Iceland induced by volcanic activity. In Greenland they will be induced by extreme weather and rapid ice melt. Any potential landscape impact of these future floods remains open to question.

Section snippets

Introduction and aims

Glacier outburst floods are common in Iceland from whence the term ‘jökulhlaup’ originates. Significant advances in our understanding of the mechanisms, processes and impacts of such floods have arisen from work undertaken in Iceland. Jökulhlaups in Iceland have threatened settlements, people and hydro-electric installations on glacier-fed rivers. They have also damaged tracts of land, with associated impacts on agriculture and livestock farming. Transport has been affected by floods due to

Data sources and methods

For the novel mapping in this paper, high resolution (2 m grid mosaic) topography was obtained from the Arctic DEM (Porter et al., 2018) via the Polar Geospatial Centre (https://www.pgc.umn.edu/data/arcticdem/). High resolution (<3 m pixel) optical wavelength and multi-spectral satellite images covering the same ground space at sub-weekly intervals were obtained from Planet (2017) images and with an ‘Education and Research Program’ licence. An outline of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) was

Glacier outburst floods in Iceland

Icelandic jökulhlaups result from the drainage of ice-marginal and subglacial lakes (i.e. they can be termed glacier lake outburst floods: GLOFs), but also from subglacial volcanism and geothermal activity, which can swiftly melt vast quantities of ice (Björnsson, 2002, Björnsson, 2010). Notable foundations for our current understanding of glacier outburst floods in Iceland include Thorarinsson's (1939) identification and discussion of ice-dammed lakes and their relationship to glacier

Glacier outburst floods in Greenland

A brief summary of the best-known ice-dammed lakes in West Greenland with periodic sudden drainages was given in Weidick and Olesen (1980). However, with technological advances, a more complete inventory of ice-dammed lakes that drain suddenly can be identified. For example, using (LandSat) satellite image analysis to construct multi-temporal ice-marginal lake inventories, Carrivick and Quincey (2014) found that between 1987 and 2010 15% of (total n = 823) ice-marginal lakes in west Greenland

The geological record of outburst floods from Iceland and Greenland

Given that glacier outburst floods are common in Iceland and Greenland, it stands to reason that they were also common in the past. However, there are two issues to identifying and understanding the geological record of outburst floods in Iceland and Greenland and these issues are no different to analyses of outburst floods and megafloods worldwide. Firstly, despite the sudden onset, high-magnitude nature of these flows both in terms of peak discharge and volume, the creation of diagnostic

Future large glacier outburst floods in Iceland and Greenland

Over half of the volcanic systems in Iceland considered active in the Holocene are overlain by glacier ice (Pagneux et al., 2015a). There is a relationship between glacier retreat and thinning and increased volcanic activity (Pagli and Sigmundsson, 2008; Tuffen, 2010); in Iceland renewed volcanic activity could clearly signal eruptions that give rise to jökulhlaups. Volcanically-generated glacier outburst floods are likely to persist for at least another two centuries, despite the impact of

Conclusions

In terms of total flood volume or peak discharge, few glacier outburst floods in Iceland and Greenland are true megafloods. However, in terms of erosional and depositional impacts, which were formed over very short time scales (often hours to days) and which are pervasive in the landscape and geological record, several Iceland and Greenland jökulhlaups can be identified to have megaflood attributes, most notably in their extensive landscape impact. For these impacts to have been produced in

Acknowledgements

Thank you to special issue editor Paul Carling for inviting us to contribute to this body of work and for his assistance with the scoping of this paper. Thank you to an anonymous reviewer and to Edwin Baynes who very helpfully suggested amendments to improve the coherence of this paper.

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Following this, the continuum carries zones where processes related to the dominant super- or subcritical flow regime represent a balance between the parameters controlling them, which include flow velocity and depth, stream power, discharge, sediment concentration, flow confinement and bedrock properties (Lang et al., 2017a; b, 2020). Whereas geomorphic and sedimentological signatures of lower-flow-regime bedforms of GLOFs and downstream aggradation have so far been well documented (e.g. Baker, 1973, 2009; Maizels, 1993, 1997; Benito and O'Connor, 2003; Carling, 1996, 1999, 2013; Carling et al., 2002; Marren et al., 2009; Russell et al., 2011; Lang and Winsemann, 2013; Lang et al., 2017a, b; Carrivick and Tweed, 2019), the geomorphic processes responsible for the development of the upper-flow-regime bedforms from GLOFs remain relatively poorly understood, especially in soft-bedrock conditions (Carrivick et al., 2013; Høgaas and Longva, 2016; Lang et al., 2020). Upper flow-regime bedforms may originate from GLOFs in subglacial and proglacial settings as a result of sub-, supra- and proglacial lake drainages.
High-energetic glacial lake-outburst floods are known both from ancient and current glacial environments. While a decrease in meltwater flow energy takes place, a proglacial bedform continuum is formed due to erosional and depositional processes; these have been studied in relatively little detail as compared to the sediment transport modes and deposition processes of glacial lake-outburst floods. Therefore, we consider upper-flow-regime bedforms that originate from glacial lake-outburst floods under subaerial conditions in the ice-proximal portion of floodwater spillways as the main interest of this study, and we particularly focus on a suite of features of scabland-like topography in NE Poland. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is used to detect the relevant landforms and to provide their morphometric parameters, and is further combined with sediment lithofacies analysis. These methods allow us to recognise a train of transverse furrows that consists of seven main and two associated depressions that altogether constitute a longitudinal cluster interpreted as cyclic steps. These bedforms developed due to (1) upstream progradation of troughs with gravelly lags, (2) scour infill with backset and foreset facies in hydraulic jump zones and (3) sedimentation on the downflow side of hydraulic jumps. The recognised cyclic steps reveal their transportational type with five scour-and-fill events under conditions of high sediment concentration and low bed resistance to floodwater erosion. Later, transverse furrows experienced aeolian accumulation and mass wasting that both made them shallower.

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A review of glacier outburst floods in Iceland and Greenland with a megafloods perspective

Abstract

Section snippets

Introduction and aims

Data sources and methods

Glacier outburst floods in Iceland

Glacier outburst floods in Greenland

The geological record of outburst floods from Iceland and Greenland

Future large glacier outburst floods in Iceland and Greenland

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Geomorphology

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Global and Planetary Change

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

Earth-Sci. Rev.

Glob. Planet. Chang.

J. Hydrol.

Glob. Planet. Chang.

Geomorphology

Sediment. Geol.

J. Hydrol.

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Geomorphology

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

Geomorphology

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Mar. Geol.

J. Hydrol.

Adv. Ecol. Res.

Comparing a 1D hydraulic model with a 2D hydraulic model for the simulation of extreme glacial outburst floods

Hydrol. Process. Int. J.

Glacier Lake Outburst Flood in Greenland

Paleohydrology and sedimentology of Lake Missoula flooding in eastern Washington

Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.

Megafoods and glaciation

High-energy megafloods: planetary settings and sedimentary dynamics

Subglacial discharge at tidewater glaciers revealed by seismic tremor

Geophys. Res. Lett.

Erosion during extreme flood events dominates Holocene canyon evolution in Northeast Iceland

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.

Explanation of jökulhlaups from Grímsvötn, Vatnajökull, Iceland

Jökull

Subglacial water reservoirs, jökulhlaups and volcanic eruptions

Jökull

Marginal and supraglacial lakes in Iceland

Jökull

The cause of jökulhlaups in the Skaftá river, Vatnajökull

Jökull

Subglacial water reservoirs, jökulhlaups and volcanic eruptions

Jökull

Hydrology of Ice Caps in Volcanic Regions

Jökulhlaups in Iceland: prediction, characteristics and simulation

Ann. Glaciol.

Hydrological characteristics of the drainage system beneath a surging glacier

Nature

Subglacial lakes and jökulhlaups in Iceland

Glob. Planet. Chang.

Understanding jökulhlaups: from tale to theory

J. Glaciol.

Volcanoes beneath Vatnajökull, Iceland: evidence from radio echo-sounding, earthquakes and jökulhlaups

Jökull

Surface and bedrock topography of the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap, Iceland: the Katla caldera, eruption sites and routes of jökulhlaups

Jökull

Runoff conditions at Kuussuup Tasia, Christianshab, estimated by modeling

Gletscher-Hydrol. Medd.

Morphology, sedimentology and palaeohydraulic significance of large gravel dunes, Altai Mountains, Siberia

Sedimentology

Megaflood sedimentary fill: Altai Mountains, Siberia

Characteristics and impacts of jökulhlaups (glacial outburst floods) from Kverkfjöll, Iceland

Hydrodynamics and geomorphic work of jökulhlaups (glacial outburst floods) from Kverkfjöll volcano, Iceland

Hydrol. Process. Int. J.

Modelling coupled hydraulics and sediment transport of a high-magnitude flood and associated landscape change

Ann. Glaciol.

Jökulhlaups from Kverkfjöll volcano, Iceland: modelling transient hydraulic phenomena

Jökulhlaups: geological importance, deglacial association and hazard management

Geol. Today

Understanding high-magnitude outburst floods