The effects of salinity and temperature on growth and survival of Australian snapper, Pagrus auratus larvae
Introduction
Two of the most potent abiotic factors in the life of marine and brackishwater organisms are temperature and salinity (Kinne, 1963). The eggs and larvae of many marine fish are euryhaline and eurythermic (Battaglene, 1995), however the tolerance of larvae to combinations of salinity and temperature is species specific, and may change during ontogeny and be influenced by maternal environmental conditions (Blaxter, 1969, Alderdice, 1988, Howell et al., 1998).
Salinity can affect yolk utilisation and larval growth and survival by influencing the amount of energy needed for osmoregulation (Howell et al., 1998). Salinity also affects the buoyancy of eggs and larvae and this can impact on the ability of larvae to get to the water surface to inflate their swimbladders (Hadley et al., 1987, Battaglene and Talbot, 1990, Battaglene and Talbot, 1993). Failure to inflate swimbladders can result in larval mortality (Chatain, 1986, Chatain, 1987, Chapman et al., 1988, Chatain and Dewavrin, 1989, Trotter et al., 2003), reduced larval growth (Battaglene and Talbot, 1990, Battaglene and Talbot, 1992) and skeletal deformities (Chatain, 1994, Kitajima et al., 1994, Trotter et al., 2001). The formation of abnormal urinary calculi in larvae has also been associated with dysfunctional swimbladders in some studies (Yamashita, 1971, Modica et al., 1993) but not others (Nowak and Battaglene, 1996).
Calculi, composed principally of calcium phosphate (Sakai et al., 1996) or apatite crystals, Ca3(PO4)2 (Nowak and Battaglene, 1996) have been observed in the urinary bladder and kidney of larvae and juveniles of several fish species including seabream (Favaloro and Mazzola, 2000), snapper (Battaglene, 1995, Nowak and Battaglene, 1996), Japanese flounder (Sakai et al., 1996) and European sea bass (Menu et al., 1998). The causes of formation of urinary calculi are not clearly understood but could include stress due to inappropriate environmental conditions and starvation (Modica et al., 1993), high internal concentrations of phosphorous and ammonia following catabolism of phosphoproteins during yolk absorption (Nowak and Battaglene, 1996) or association with specific larval rearing techniques and hatchery sites (Menu et al., 1998). Despite their abnormal presence, urinary calculi are often not associated with increased larval mortality or a reduction in larval growth (Battaglene, 1995, Sakai et al., 1996, Favaloro and Mazzola, 2000).
Temperature usually has a greater effect on fish growth than salinity (Rombough, 1996) and can affect virtually all aspects of fish reproduction (van der Kraak and Pankhurst, 1996), and larval development including hatching size, efficiency of yolk utilisation, growth, feeding rate, time to metamorphosis, digestion rates and metabolic demand (Blaxter, 1988, Rombough, 1996). Due to the interactive effects of salinity and temperature on osmoregulation they should be considered together when determining optimal conditions for tolerance and performance (Kinne, 1963).
Many studies have dealt with short-term (1–10 days) effects of salinity and temperature on marine fish eggs, larvae and juveniles (e.g. Kinne, 1963, Holliday, 1969, Freddi et al., 1981, Rombough, 1996). However, the effect of long-term (> 10 days) exposure to different salinities and temperature on marine fish larval performance has attracted little attention (Hart et al., 1996). Such studies are essential to determine optimal salinity and temperature for larval rearing (Tandler et al., 1995, Hart et al., 1996).
Australian snapper, Pagrus auratus, is an important commercial and recreational species found in Australian and New Zealand waters (Bell et al., 1991, Battaglene and Bell, 1991, Pankhurst et al., 1991). Whilst wild catches are declining in Australia (ABARE, 2000), aquaculture of snapper is increasing in Australia using intensive larval rearing techniques followed by growout in sea-cages (Battaglene and Talbot, 1992, Battaglene and Fielder, 1997, Fielder et al., 2002). These hatchery techniques are similar to those used for culture of the closely related Japanese red sea bream, P. major (Foscarini, 1988) which is a proposed sub-species of P. auratus (Tabata and Taniguchi, 2000).
The environmental conditions in which Australian snapper larvae are typically reared are principally based on ambient coastal conditions during the natural spring/summer spawning season (Battaglene and Talbot, 1992). Salinity and temperature during this time are approximately 35‰ and 16–23 °C, respectively (Pankhurst et al., 1991, Battaglene, 1995). However, the salinity and temperature combination for optimal development, growth and survival of snapper larvae is unknown.
Similarly, despite major aquaculture production of red sea bream in Japan, relatively little is known about the optimal environmental requirements for larval rearing of this fish (Mihelakakis and Yoshimatsu, 1998). To date, research has focussed on effects of salinity and temperature on embryonic development (Matsuura and Kakuda, 1980), hatching (Apostolopoulos, 1976) and incubation period, hatching rate and morphology of newly hatched larvae (Mihelakakis and Yoshimatsu, 1998).
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of salinity and temperature on larval snapper ontogeny to determine the optimal salinity and temperature protocol for swimbladder inflation, growth and survival of snapper larvae reared in tanks.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
Three experiments were done at the NSW Fisheries Port Stephens Fisheries Centre from May 1998 to February 1999.
Effect of salinity from 3 to 21 dah
Salinity had a significant effect on survival and growth of snapper larvae. All larvae held in 5‰ died within 48 h of transfer from 35‰ to 5‰. Some larvae survived for 18 days in all salinities from 10‰ to 45‰ (Table 1). All larvae died in one replicate tank in the 20‰ treatment but analysis of remaining tanks showed that best survival was achieved in the salinity range of 20‰ to 35‰. Larvae were significantly shorter at 45‰ than at salinities ranging from 10‰ to 35‰, which did not differ
Discussion
Slight differences in survival and development of larvae occurred in control salinity (35‰) and temperature (21 °C) treatments among experiments, despite attempts to maintain the same rearing conditions. Initial stocking densities of snapper larvae in experiments ranged from 6 to 15 larvae l− 1, which is low compared with other intensively reared sparids; 12–72 larvae l− 1 for red sea bream (Fukusho, 1989) and 100 larvae l− 1 for gilthead sea bream, (Tandler et al., 1989, Chatain and
Acknowledgements
We thank Paul Beevers and David Glendenning of NSW Fisheries for technical assistance and Dr. John Nell, Dr Wayne O'Connor and Mr Mark Booth of NSW Fisheries for useful comments on the draft manuscript.
This study was supported by funding from the Cooperative Research Centre for Aquaculture, Finfish Propagation Program, Project C4.2.
References (63)
Osmotic and ionic regulation in teleost eggs and larvae
- et al.
Initial swim bladder inflation in intensively reared Australian bass larvae, Macquaria novemaculeata (Steindachner) (Perciformes: Percichthyidae)
Aquaculture
(1990) Development: eggs and larvae
Pattern and variety in development
La Vessie natatoire chez Dicentrarchus labrax et Sparus auratus: I. Aspects morhologiques du développement
Aquaculture
(1986)La Vessie natatoire chez Dicentrarchus labrax et Sparus auratus: II. Influence des anomalies de développement sur la croissance de la larve
Aquaculture
(1987)Abnormal swimbladder development and lordosis in sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus auratus)
Aquaculture
(1994)- et al.
The effects of abnormalities in the development of the swim bladder on the mortality of Dicentrarchus labrax during weaning
Aquaculture
(1989) - et al.
Improved rate of initial swim bladder inflation in intensively reared Sparus auratus
Aquaculture
(1990) - et al.
Studies on the young grey mullet, Mugil cephalus L.: I. Effects of salinity on food intake, growth and food conversion
Aquaculture
(1976)
Effect of rapid changes in temperature and salinity on availability of the rotifers Brachionus rotundiformis and Brachionus plicatilis
Aquaculture
A review: intensive farming procedure for sea bream (Pagrus major) in Japan
Aquaculture
Effects of photoperiod, temperature and salinity on hatchery-reared larvae of the greenback flounder (Rhombosolea tapirina Günther, 1862)
Aquaculture
The effects of salinity on the developing eggs and larvae of teleosts
Mortality, growth and swim bladder stress syndrome of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) larvae under varied environmental conditions
Aquaculture
Effects of salinity and temperature on incubation period, hatching rate and morphogenesis of the silver bream, Sparus sarba (Forskål, 1775)
Aquaculture
Feeding, physiology and growth responses in first-feeding gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) larvae in relation to prey density
Aquaculture
Respiratory gas exchange, aerobic metabolism, and effects of hypoxia during early life
Statistical power and aquaculture research
Aquaculture
Experiments on the artificial rearing of the Black Sea Turbot (Scophthalmus maeoticus maeoticus)
Aquaculture
Effect of environmental temperature on survival, growth and population structure in the mass rearing of the gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata
Aquaculture
The effect of salinity on growth rate, survival and swimbladder inflation in gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata, larvae
Aquaculture
Swim bladder malformation in hatchery-reared striped trumpeter Latris lineata (Latridae)
Aquaculture
Effects of temperature on initial swim bladder inflation and related development in cultured striped trumpeter (Latris lineata) larvae
Aquaculture
Studies on the biology of the red sea bream, Chrysophyrs major—II
Salinity Adaptation. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.
Australian Fisheries Statistics 2000
Combined effects of temperature and salinity on hatching rate, hatching time and total body length of the newly hatched larvae of the Japanese red sea bream Pagrus major
La Mer
The status of marine fish larval-rearing technology in Australia
Hydrobiologia
Induced spawning and larval rearing of snapper, Pagrus auratus (Pisces: Sparidae), from Australian waters
N.Z. J. Mar. Freshw. Res.
Cited by (88)
Natural spawning, early development and first successful hatchery production of the bluestreak cleaner wrasse, Labroides dimidiatus (Valenciennes, 1839), with application of an inorganic fertilization method in larviculture
2022, AquacultureCitation Excerpt :The salinity was initially maintained at 33.0 ± 0.1 psu. When the experiments started, water salinities were raised or lowered at a rate of 2.0 psu per h, until the set salinity was achieved (Fielder et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2010). Values of hatch rate to assess egg quality under different treatments were calculated using the formulae described above.
Captive spawning, early development and larviculture of the dwarf hawkfish, Cirrhitichthys falco ( Randall, 1963) with experimental evaluation of the effects of temperature, salinity and initial prey on hatching success and first feeding
2021, AquacultureCitation Excerpt :Salinity has apparent effects on the internal structures of marine larvae (Holliday, 1969). Lower salinities have been reported to result in higher larval growth rates in many marine fish species compared with those at higher salinities (Boeuf and Payan, 2001; Fielder et al., 2005), but higher salinities were performed high deformity (Lee et al., 2011). Many studies have reported on the effects of different temperatures and salinities on marine fishes (Rogers, 1976; Howell, 1980; Watanabe et al., 1999; Fielder et al., 2005).
Early life history growth in fish reflects consumption-mortality tradeoffs
2020, Fisheries Research