Travel reduction strategies: intentions and outcomes
Introduction
The environmental impact of transport ranges from the consumption of fuel and land to the effects of pollution, noise and vibration, as well as accidents, visual intrusion and community severance. As transport is a significant contributor to the consumption of scarce resources and overall environmental damage, it is necessary for transport policy to address ways of reducing these adverse environmental impacts. Various policy options are available to do this: for example, the use of technology to produce more environmentally friendly vehicles, or the design of the transport system to minimize the environmental impact of vehicles and infrastructure. A further means, and a fundamental one, is to attempt to reduce the amount of travel itself.
When examining the trends in travel patterns taking place over recent decades, it is clear that, firstly, there is an ongoing absolute growth in travel, and secondly, that the most significant growth is taking place in travel by car and by air. It is noted for example that these modes are the most polluting ones in terms of emissions of harmful gases Nijkamp et al., 1995, Banister, 1999. At the urban level, it is the increasing use of the private car both in relative and in absolute terms which is of particular significance, and therefore identifying and putting into effect strategies for reducing car travel become particularly important. The concern about environmental impacts and the implications for sustainability as a result of these trends point to the need to attempt to reduce travel CEC, 1992, CEC, 1993. In the European context, this means a net reduction in vehicle kilometers traveled, particularly by environmentally damaging modes of transport, such as the car. It can under certain circumstances also mean a reduction in trips through substitution (e.g., telecommuting) or trip chaining.
The aim of this paper is to examine the types of travel reduction strategies which are available to policy makers and evaluate their potential impacts by means of case studies. The paper firstly notes the trends which have contributed to the need to consider reducing travel, and how policies may be applied to these trends. Categories of measures with travel reducing potential are then identified, and these are related to the implicit mechanisms of switching or substitution by which travel would be modified or reduced. The paper examines the impacts of particular measures by means of case studies in three countries. Conclusions are drawn on the effectiveness of the measures and implications for the future application of travel reduction strategies.
Section snippets
Travel reduction strategies
Over the past 10 yr (1985–1994), there has been a substantial growth in car travel in the 15 European Union countries (a 40% increase in passenger km). This is conventionally explained by a 31% increase in car ownership, the increase in the length (+10%) and capacity of the road network, rising income levels and a modest population increase (+3.4%) (Marshall et al., 1997). In contrast, the growth in bus travel (+6%) and rail travel (+3%) has been limited (Eurostat, 1997). These trends are
European case studies
This review of case studies is intended to demonstrate the outcomes arising from the implementation of travel reduction strategies in three European countries. The approach is to select cases involving a variety of measures which illustrate key mechanisms and travel behavioral outcomes. It is therefore demonstrative of the significant points which need to be borne in mind when relating travel reduction intentions to outcomes, whatever individual measures might be under consideration.
This review
Discussion
From the case studies it is seen that it is possible to reduce car travel, principally through modal shift away from the car or through reduced travel distance. In specific circumstances it has been possible to target particular sectors of demand to effect this reduction. For example, specific measures may encourage a target group of users (e.g., company employees) or users in a target situation (e.g., commuters to a particular location) to change their behavior.
The successes in achieving
Acknowledgements
This paper was presented at the IATBR Eighth meeting in Austin, Texas September 1997. We are grateful for that opportunity to present results of the DANTE project, and for the comprehensive comments given by the two anonymous referees.
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