Review articleProtective effects of flavonoids against microbes and toxins: The cases of hesperidin and hesperetin
Graphical abstract
A schematic view of the protective effects of hesperidin and hesperetin against microbes and toxins.
Introduction
Polyphenols, a large class of biologically active substances, are distributed in plants as secondary metabolites. These substances provide color and flavor to different plant parts and they also play an important role in resistance against various microbial pathogens and protect against radiations and toxins. Many recent studies have mainly focused on polyphenols and their diverse biological effects [13], [49].
Flavonoids are one of the most common polyphenols, and they exhibit interesting and beneficial medicinal effects on human health. The various biological properties of flavonoids, such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anticancer, antibacterial, immune-stimulating and antiviral activities, have been reported extensively [22].
Hesperidin (Hsd) is the major flavonoid in citrus fruits, and it was isolated for the first time from citrus peel by Lebreton in 1827. The Hsd molecule is composed of an aglycone unit, namely hesperetin (Hst), and a disaccharide, rutinose (Fig. 1).
Hsd and Hst possess different activities, such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic and antiallergic effects. Hsd and Hst substances are also called bioflavonoids because of this wide range of effects. A descriptive review of the different biological activities and physicochemical properties of Hsd was published by Garg et al. in 2001 [21]. In addition, neuropharmacological, antioxidant, and antiinflammatory properties and the pharmacokinetics of Hsd and Hst were published in our recent review papers [42], [51]. The protective effects of Hsd and Hst against toxicities induced by certain chemotherapy drugs have been widely investigated [1], [58]. However, there has not been a comprehensive report on the protective effects of Hsd and Hst against invading pathogens and various toxicities induced by environmental toxins, occupational hazards, radiotherapy and chemotherapeutic agents.
Accordingly, this review provides a detailed overview of the current state of knowledge of the protective effects of the bioflavonoids, Hsd and Hst, against the aforementioned toxicities. The probable mechanisms governing these particular activities are also discussed.
Section snippets
Protective effects of Hsd and Hst against invading pathogens
Plant flavonoids play an important role in the protection against pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi and viruses. However, the high rate of microbial resistance to conventional antibiotics suggested flavonoids as suitable alternatives to antibiotics. Furthermore, flavonoids can be considered natural food preservatives because of their antimicrobial activities [50]. Generally, flavonoids are found in glycosylated forms in plants, and the presence of a sugar moiety is an important
Protective effects of Hsd and Hst against toxicities induced by various factors
Human health is threatened by pathogenic microorganisms, parasites and exposure to toxic materials, primarily occupational and environmental contaminations, such as heavy metals. Additionally, chemotherapy and radiotherapy have side effects and toxicities on the human body. These factors damage tissues and cells through different mechanisms, such as the induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and oxidative stress (Fig. 2). Therefore, natural compounds that possess antioxidant
Conclusion
Hst and Hsd are citrus flavonoids that exhibit various biological activities. Numerous papers have been published on certain beneficial effects of Hsd, Hst and their derivatives. These substances play an important role in plant defense systems to combat different pathogens. Therefore, they may be useful polyphenolic substances that possess antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal activities in humans.
The exact mechanisms of antimicrobial activity are not fully understood. However, different
Conflict of interest statement
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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